Enhancing Switchgrass Drying Rate

Rapid drying to baling moisture reduces weather-related risks when harvesting perennial grasses to be used as biomass feedstocks. Drying switchgrass can be challenging due to large, dense swaths and unfavorable autumn drying conditions, so new methods to improve drying are needed. Two techniques to enhance switchgrass drying rate were investigated, which are intensive conditioning and wide-swath drying. Intensive conditioning involved rolls that crushed the stem along its length accompanied by differential roll speed to disrupt the waxy epidermis of the stem. Wide-swath drying involved a post-conditioning tedding operation that distributed the crop across most of the cut width. A mower-tractor-intensive conditioner-tedder combination was configured so that intensive conditioning, wide-swath drying, or both could be achieved in a single pass. Although not consistent across all trials, intensive conditioning and wide-swath drying were about equally effective at improving switchgrass drying rate compared to conventional conditioning alone. However, the combination of intensive conditioning followed by wide-swath drying consistently resulted in the most rapid drying rate. In eight separate trials, this combination produced switchgrass moisture contents well below 20% (w.b.) on the second or third day after cutting. An empirical model of switchgrass drying rate was developed, which can be used to predict switchgrass drying time based on weather conditions, conditioning level, and swath density.     

Preservation of micro-organisms by drying; a review

The preservation of micro-organisms by different drying methodologies has been used for decades. Freeze drying in particular is the preferred method for transporting and storing vast culture collections of micro-organism strain types. The literature on drying and preserving micro-organisms is extensive, but is often specific to one particular strain. This review attempts to draw some similar concepts and findings together in one paper, to compare different drying techniques, with specific reference to microorganisms. The main topics covered are cell growth phases and concentration, inducing drying tolerance in microbial cells, drying methods, rehydration of dried cells and packaging and storage conditions. Also, particular attention has been paid to the use of freeze drying and the protective matrices used to improve microbial cell viability after drying.     

Effect of Drying on Unexposed Autoradiographic Emulsion in Relation to Background

Unexposed blanks prepared from Kodak AR 10 stripping film were dried by 3 methods: (1) fast, open drying with a fan for 25 min, (2) slow drying in a desiccator for 6 hr, and (3) very slow drying in a desiccator for 24 hr. The number of background grains depended on the mode of drying. Fast drying (method 1) gave 0.7 grain per 100 μ², slow drying (method 2) gave 0.33 grain; very slow drying (method 3), only 0.17 grain. The increase of background after fast drying is assumed to be caused by the rapid shrinkage of wet emulsion. This causes an increase in the intraemulsion pressure which, in turn, sensitizes the silver bromide crystals to cause an increase in the number of developable grains.     

Effect of decompression drying treatment on physical properties of solid foods

This study used a decompression drying instrument to investigate the effects of a drying treatment on the physical properties of solid foods. Commercial tofu was used as a model food and was treated at different temperature and pressure conditions in a drying chamber. Overall, high temperatures resulted in better drying. Additionally, pressure in the chamber influenced the drying conditions of samples. Differences in physical properties, such as food texture, shrinkage, and color were observed among some samples, even with similar moisture content. This was caused by differences in moisture distribution in the food, which seems to have manifested as a thin, dried film on the surfaces of samples. It caused inefficient drying and changes in physical properties. Control of the drying conditions (i.e. pressure and heat supply) has relations with not only physical properties, but also the drying efficiency of solid foods.     

Novel Method for Enumeration of Viable Lactobacillus plantarum WCFS1 Cells after Single-Droplet Drying

Survival of probiotic bacteria during drying is not trivial. Survival percentages are very specific for each probiotic strain and can be improved by careful selection of drying conditions and proper drying carrier formulation. An experimental approach is presented, comprising a single-droplet drying method and a subsequent novel screening methodology, to assess the microbial viability within single particles. The drying method involves the drying of a single droplet deposited on a flat, hydrophobic surface under well-defined drying conditions and carrier formulations. Semidried or dried particles were subjected to rehydration, fluorescence staining, and live/dead enumeration using fluorescence microscopy. The novel screening methodology provided accurate survival percentages in line with conventional plating enumeration and was evaluated in single-droplet drying experiments with Lactobacillus plantarum WCFS1 as a model probiotic strain. Parameters such as bulk air temperatures and the carrier matrices (glucose, trehalose, and maltodextrin DE 6) were varied. Following the experimental approach, the influence on the viability as a function of the drying history could be monitored. Finally, the applicability of the novel viability assessment was demonstrated for samples obtained from drying experiments at a larger scale.     

国家种质库种子干燥处理技术的建立与应用

降低入库种子的含水量,是维持种质长期安全贮藏的重要保证。经过近20年的不断摸索和改进,国家种质库已建立起一套有效的种子干燥处理技术系统,完成了33万余份种质的干燥处理任务。本介绍了该系统的设备组成、作物种子适宜的干燥温度、相对湿度、处理时间以及应用情况。     

Ibuprofen-Loaded Calcium Stearate Pellets: Drying-Induced Variations in Dosage Form Properties

Pellets intended for oral dosing are frequently produced via extrusion/spheronization followed by drying. Typically, the last active process step, i.e., drying, is assumed to have little effect on the final dosage form properties (e.g., dissolution characteristics). Thus, there exist only a few studies of this subject. In the present study, calcium stearate/ibuprofen pellets were used as model system to investigate the impact of the drying conditions. Lipophilic calcium stearate matrix pellets containing 20% ibuprofen were prepared via wet extrusion/spheronization. Subsequently, desiccation, fluid-bed drying, and lyophilization were applied for granulation liquid removal. The impact of these drying techniques on the final pellet properties was evaluated. The in vitro dissolution behavior was dramatically altered by the drying techniques that were considered. The investigated pellets showed drug release rates that varied as much as 100%. As no polymorphic transitions occurred during drying, we focused on two possible explanations: (a) a change in the drug distribution within the pellets and (b) a change in pellet micro-structure (porosity, pore size). The ibuprofen distribution proved to be homogeneous regardless of the drying conditions. Pellet porosity and pore sizes, however, were modified by the drying process. Our results clearly demonstrate that a single process step, such as drying, can play a crucial role in achieving desired pellet properties and release profiles.     

热风干燥温度对荷叶离褶伞干燥特性及挥发性风味物质的影响

为探究不同热风干燥温度对荷叶离褶伞干燥特性及挥发性风味物质的影响。本研究比较了8种常见干燥动力学模型对荷叶离褶伞干燥过程拟合的适用性,采用GC-IMS技术,对不同干燥温度处理下荷叶离褶伞的挥发性风味物质进行测定。结果表明：荷叶离褶伞热风干燥为典型的降速干燥,Midilli-Kucuk模型可以较好地描述其热风干燥过程（R²>0.99791,RMSE<0.0152,χ²<2.31×10^-4）;温度对荷叶离褶伞风味物质影响显著,在5个干燥温度处理下的荷叶离褶伞中共鉴定到47种挥发性风味物质,包括醛类13种、酮类8种、醇类13种、酯类5种和其他类8种。随着干燥温度升高（55-75℃）,醛类物质相对含量呈下降趋势,而醇类、酮类以及其他物质（乙酸等）略有上升趋势。     

A diffusion model for drying of a heat sensitive solid under multiple heat input modes

To obtain optimal drying kinetics as well as quality of the dried product in a batch dryer, the energy required may be supplied by combining different modes of heat transfer. In this work, using potato slice as a model heat sensitive drying object, experimental studies were conducted using a batch heat pump dryer designed to permit simultaneous application of conduction and radiation heat. Four heat input schemes were compared: pure convection, radiation-coupled convection, conduction-coupled convection and radiation-conduction-coupled convection. A two-dimensional drying model was developed assuming the drying rate to be controlled by liquid water diffusion. Both drying rates and temperatures within the slab during drying under all these four heat input schemes showed good accord with measurements. Radiation-coupled convection is the recommended heat transfer scheme from the viewpoint of high drying rate and low energy consumption.     

Axes and cotyledons of recalcitrant seeds of Castanea sativa Mill. exhibit contrasting responses of respiration to drying in relation to desiccation sensitivity

Oxidative damage originating from uncontrolled metabolism is thought to be responsible for the sensitivity to drying in recalcitrant seeds. This study compares the responses of respiration to drying and the loss of membrane integrity in isolated axes and cotyledons of the recalcitrant seeds of Castanea sativa Mill. Electron spin resonance spectroscopy of two nitroxide spin probes introduced into the seed tissues was used to assess the cytoplasmic viscosity and the membrane permeability during fast and slow drying. Drying rates had not effect on the rise in viscosity in axes and cotyledons. In both tissues, the cytoplasmic viscosity during drying remained constant at 0.2 Poise until 1.6 g water/g DW (g/g), thereafter it increased exponentially. Axes were found to be more tolerant to drying than cotyledons: membranes showed minor changes in their permeability during drying and 50% viability was retained in dried axes containing 0.12 g/g. In contrast, plasma membranes in cotyledons lost their integrity below 0.6 g/g, regardless of the drying rate. Drying axes and cotyledons exhibited contrasting responses of their metabolism to drying. At the onset of drying, the rates of O2 uptake declined rapidly in drying axes. However, respiration in drying cotyledons sequentially increased to c. 1.4-fold at 1.2 g/g then decreased concomitantly with the loss of membrane integrity. The respiratory quotients (CO2 output/O2 input) remained constant around 0.9 until the loss of membrane integrity, then rose to 2.8. As a symptom of mitochondrial injury, the levels of reduction of cytochromes were assessed in situ in fresh and dried cotyledons using light spectroscopy. The levels of reduced cytochrome c and aa3 were lower in dried C. sativa cotyledons than in dried orthodox cotyledons of cowpea, indicating that a disruption in the electron transport chains may have occurred during drying. Desiccation sensitivity in recalcitrant seeds may be due to the inability to actively depress their metabolism during drying, thereby increasing the chances of initiating peroxidative damage during drying.Key words: Castanea satia, membrane permeability, recalcitrant seed, respiration, viscosity.      

Intermittent drying of bioproducts--an overview

Unlike the conventional practice of supplying energy for batch drying processes at a constant rate, newly developed intermittent drying processes employ time-varying heat input tailored to match the drying kinetics of the material being dried. The energy required may be supplied by combining different modes of heat transfer (e.g. convection coupled with conduction or radiation or dielectric heating simultaneously or in a pre-selected sequence) in a time-varying fashion so as to provide optimal drying kinetics as well as quality of the bioproduct. This is especially important for drying of heat-sensitive materials (such as foods, pharmaceutical, neutraceutical substances, herbs, spices and herbal medicines). Intermittent heat supply is beneficial only for materials which dry primarily in the falling rate period where internal diffusion of heat and moisture controls the overall drying rate. Periods when little or no heat is supplied for drying allow the tempering period needed for the moisture and heat to diffuse within the material. As the moisture content increases at the surface of the biomaterial during the tempering period, the rate of drying is higher when heat input is resumed. It is possible to control the heat input such that the surface temperature of the product does not exceed a pre-determined value beyond which thermal damage of the material may occur. This process results in reduction in the use of thermal energy as well as the mass of air used in convective drying. Thus, the thermal efficiency of such a process is higher. The quality of the product, as such color and ascorbic acid content, is also typically superior to that obtained with a continuous supply of heat. However, in some cases, there will be a nominal increase in drying time. In the case of microwave-assisted and heat pump drying, for example, the capital cost of the drying system can also be reduced by drying in the intermittent mode.

This paper provides an overview of the basic process, selected results from experiments and mathematical models for a variety of biomaterials dried in a wide assortment of dryers. It begins with a classification of intermittent drying processes that may be applied e.g. time-varying temperature, air flow rate, operating pressure as well as heat input by different modes and in different temporal variations. The beneficial effects of improving the quality of dried bioproducts by different intermittent processes are also included and discussed.     

Effects of drying methods on rheological properties of flaxseed gum

Flaxseed gum solutions were extracted and dried by different methods: ethanol precipitation, freeze drying, 105 °C oven drying, 80 °C oven drying, spray drying, and vacuum drying. The effects of these drying methods on the rheological properties of flaxseed gum were investigated in present study. Ethanol precipitation increased the apparent viscosity of flaxseed gum solution, while all the other methods decreased the apparent viscosity. Most of the drying methods slightly increased the activation energy, except ethanol precipitation. In frequency sweep test, all the drying methods reduced the G′ and G″ values. In creep–recovery tests, the data were modeled by Berger’s model. The E₂ and η₁ values were reduced by all of the drying methods in this study. Some relationships were found between the parameters in the Power Law model of the frequency sweep test and the parameters in Berger’s model.     

Dehydration Kinetics of Embryonic Axes from Desiccation-sensitive Seeds:An Assessment of Descriptive Models

The response of desiccation-sensitive plant tissues to dehydration is significantly affected by dehydration conditions, particularly the rate of drying. Consequently it is important to be able to quantify drying rate. The aim of the study was to assess two models that have been proposed to describe drying kinetics, and thus to provide a quantification of non-linear drying rates, of embryonic axes excised from recalcitrant seeds. These models are an exponential drying time course, and a modified inverse relationship, respectively. For the six species investigated here the inverse function was generally found to fit drying data better than the exponential function under both rapid and slow drying conditions, and so is recommended. The rate of drying, under the conditions used here, was determined by axis size and possibly the nature of the axis outer coverings, rather than the water activity difference between the tissue and surrounding air.     

金针菇不同萃取物对肿瘤细胞的影响

比较冷冻干燥、鼓风干燥两种不同干燥方式对金针菇挥发性成分的影响,对干燥后香味物质较丰富的鼓风干燥方式获得的金针菇样品进行不同极性溶剂萃取并进行抗氧化及体外抗肿瘤试验。结果表明：两种干燥方式得到的主要挥发性成分均为醇类和醛类,但鼓风干燥后的金针菇样品中两类物质含量明显高于真空冷冻干燥方式获得的。体外药理实验表明不同萃取物在抗氧化和抗肿瘤细胞中均表现出良好的活性。     

不同干燥方式、存储温度对羊栖菜中岩藻黄素稳定性的影响

为探究不同干燥方式、不同存储温度和存储时间对羊栖菜中岩藻黄素稳定性的影响,本研究考察了三种不同干燥方式,包括自然阴干、低温烘干和冷冻干燥,对羊栖菜中岩藻黄素稳定性的影响。结果表明采用冷冻干燥所得羊栖菜,含水量低,岩藻黄素含量高,达到699.2μg/g,岩藻黄素保留率为94.7%,远高于自然阴干及低温烘干。因此,冷冻干燥是最佳干燥方法。考察了四个不同温度(-20、4、25、30℃)存储对冻干羊栖菜中岩藻黄素稳定性的影响,结果表明随着存储温度的升高,岩藻黄素的降解率明显增高,因此,-20℃为最佳储存温度。     

Experimental Investigation of Drying Behavior of Carrots in a Fluidized Bed with Energy Carrier

A pilot scale fluidized bed dryer with inert particles as energy carrier was used to investigate the drying characteristics of carrot in this type of dryer. Glass beads, hollow steel balls and pieces of dry carrot were used as inert materials. The effects of sample diameter, inert material type, inert material diameter, amount of inert material, air velocity and temperature on the rate of drying were studied. It was found that the presence of inert particles enhances the rate of drying. The results of this study also revealed that, although the rate of drying increased with decreasing sample diameter, increasing of inert material thermal conductivity, and increasing of air temperature, but the inert material diameter and air velocity did not have any significant effect on the rate of drying. The independence of the rate of drying on air velocity in well fluidized systems, indicates that external diffusion is not the controlling step in this process. It was also found that the presence of inert materials caused the drying material to reach its final internal temperature more rapidly. The internal temperature of the drying material, also increased with increasing diameter and thermal conductivity of the inert materials.     

Enzyme degradation during drying

During drying of food materials a multitude of chemical reactions and/or physical changes may occur. In this article attention is focused on one of these, namely, inactivation of enzymes during drying. The prediction of enzyme retention during drying is of interest to the pharmaceutical industry for the production of dry enzyme preparations and to the food processing industry in drying operations of food materials containing enzymes. In this article calculated enzyme retentions are presented for different drying histories and shapes of drying particles. In the numerical calculations it is assumed that enzyme degradation kinetics are first-order reactions, of which reaction constants are known as a function of temperature and water concentration in the drying material. From the calculations, conclusions can be drawn about conditions favorable for high enzyme retentions, or for high enzyme degradations.     

Drying techniques for the visualisation of agarose‐based chromatography media by scanning electron microscopy

The drying of chromatography resins prior to scanning electron microscopy is critical to image resolution and hence understanding of the bead structure at sub‐micron level. Achieving suitable drying conditions is especially important with agarose‐based chromatography resins, as over‐drying may cause artefact formation, bead damage and alterations to ultrastructural properties; and under‐drying does not provide sufficient resolution for visualization under SEM. This paper compares and contrasts the effects of two drying techniques, critical point drying and freeze drying, on the morphology of two agarose based resins (MabSelect?/d _w ≈85 µm and Capto? Adhere/d _w ≈75 µm) and provides a complete method for both. The results show that critical point drying provides better drying and subsequently clearer ultrastructural visualization of both resins under SEM. Under this protocol both the polymer fibers (thickness ≈20 nm) and the pore sizes (diameter ≈100 nm) are clearly visible. Freeze drying is shown to cause bead damage to both resins, but to different extents. MabSelect resin encounters extensive bead fragmentation, whilst Capto Adhere resin undergoes partial bead disintegration, corresponding with the greater extent of agarose crosslinking and strength of this resin. While freeze drying appears to be the less favorable option for ultrastructural visualization of chromatography resin, it should be noted that the extent of fracturing caused by the freeze drying process may provide some insight into the mechanical properties of agarose‐based chromatography media.     

不同干燥方法对蝇蛆蛋白粉营养价值的影响

采用化学分析和动物实验的方法对冷冻干燥、微波干燥和低温干燥的蝇蛆粉进行了营养评价。结果表明,3种干燥方法不影响蝇蛆粉的粗蛋白和灰分含量,但微波干燥蝇蛆粉的脂肪含量显著降低;氨基酸分析显示,冷冻干燥蝇蛆粉的氨基酸总含量>微波干燥的蝇蛆粉>低温干燥的蝇蛆粉,而3种方法干燥的蝇蛆粉EAA/TAA均等于或大于41%,说明干燥所得的蝇蛆粉均属优质蛋白。另外,与FAO/WHO参考模式值相比,冷冻干燥蝇蛆粉的必需和半必需氨基酸总量明显高于FAO/WHO参考模式值,微波干燥的蝇蛆粉与FAO/WHO参考模式值相当,而低温干燥的蝇蛆粉中必需与半必需氨基酸含量显著低于FAO/WHO参考模式值,说明微波干燥及低温干燥会破坏蝇蛆中的某些必需或半必需氨基酸。动物实验结果表明,冷冻干燥的蝇蛆粉在动物体内被吸收利用的程度最高,其次是酪蛋白,再次是低温干燥的蝇蛆粉,而微波干燥的蝇蛆粉被动物吸收利用的程度最低。     

Comparison of air-drying methods for evaluating the desiccation tolerance of liquid culture-produced blastospores of Paecilomyces fumosoroseus

Various drying methods were tested to identify a standard procedure for evaluating the desiccation tolerance of liquid culture-produced blastospores of Paecilomyces fumosoroseus. Since our work is focused on optimizing fermentation conditions for the production of P. fumosoroseus, the criteria for selecting a drying method included ease of use, moderate spore survival after drying and limited variation in spore survival. Three air-drying methods were tested: P. fumosoroseus blastospores mixed with silica gel, with sand, or with diatomaceous earth. Humidity controlled drying was used in the diatomaceous earth drying method. Blastospore survivals after drying were 19% (C.V. range, 32 to 45%), 82% (C.V. range, 26 to 43%), and 2% (C.V. range 32 to 50%) for the silica gel, sand, and diatomaceous earth methods, respectively. Blastospores dried using the silica gel and sand methods had been rinsed in 0.7 m polyethylene glycol before drying and rehydrated in the same solution for determination of survival. The variation observed within each method was similar. The silica gel drying method was selected as most appropriate for our studies based on moderate blastospore survival (19%) and ease of use.