Reversed sexual size dimorphism in microtines: Are females larger than males or are males smaller than females?

Summary We analysed sexual size dimorphism for 21 populations of microtine rodents. Female to male size ratio varied considerably among populations from females significantly larger than males (ratio=1.18) to males larger than females (ratio=0.78). In a multiple regression analysis female to male home range size ratio explained 94% of the total variation in body size dimorphism and was the only one of eight independent variables that was selected in a stepwise regression procedure. When females are the larger sex, males have home range sizes much larger than females. We suggest that the relationship between home range size ratio and body weight size dimorphism reflects different selection pressures on males and females in competition for resources and mates.     

Postcanine tooth size in female primates

The results of many allometric studies of postcanine tooth size in mammals have not corresponded to expectations of tooth size based on energy requirements and dental function. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between postcanine occlusal surface area, body size, and the metabolic demands of pregnancy and lactation in female primates. Tooth and body sizes from 38 primate species were taken from the literature to test two hypotheses: 1) females should have relatively larger teeth than males in order to masticate additional food for the energetic costs of reproduction; 2) taxa with the largest neonatal size (a measure of average metabolic costs of pregnancy and lactation) should have females with a greater degree of relative dental enlargement. The results show that relatively large female teeth are not found consistently in primate species. Females have less occlusal surface area than expected on the basis of the male tooth and body size regression in 21% of the species, and there is no correlation between relative female tooth size and relative newborn size across higher primate taxa. The degree of female dental enlargement is most closely related to degree of sexual dimorphism in body weight. The correlation between degree of body weight dimorphism and relatively larger postcanine teeth in females than in males is 0.87 in the 38 species. Species that are monomorphic in weight tend to be monomorphic in tooth size even though females apparently require more food than males.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Principal components analysis of physical growth in savannah baboons

Morphometric data collected from 118 male and 169 female savannah baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis) aged between birth and 5.5 years were analyzed to describe the morphology and physical growth of this species. Measurements included weight, crown-rump length, triceps circumference, and skinfolds at the neck, subscapular, suprailiac, and triceps anatomical sites. Principal components analyses were applied to the data to provide multivariate assessments of morphological patterning among the variables. These analyses resulted in the extraction of two unrotated orthogonal components that accounted for 88% of the overall sample variation. The first component accounted for 77% of the variation and represents an axis of overall body size. The second component represents an axis of shape variation that contrasts body size with fat patterning, and was interpreted as a measure of body leanness. Individual component scores were computed for determining age, gender, and age-by-gender interaction effects. Both components were found to be age dependent for both genders. Males and females shared similar age patterning along the two components; however, gender differences did occur in patterning along the two components; however, gender differences did occur in respect to leanness. The multivariate measure of overall body size increased for both genders similarly with advancing age. Age patterning along the leanness component was described as a decrease from birth to 1 year, followed by an increase in leanness in older ages. Females had a delayed and significantly less intense increase in leanness relative to males.     

Determination of hand surface area by sex and body shape using alginate

Hand surface area (HSA) has been utilized for burned skin area estimation in burn therapy, heat exchange in thermal physiology, exposure assessment in occupational toxicology, and the development of manual equipment/ protective gloves in ergonomics. The purpose of this study was to determine the hand surface area to the total body surface area (BSA) and derive a formula for estimating HSA. Thirty-four Korean males (20-60 years old; 158.5-187.5 cm in height; 48.5-103.1 kg in body weight) and thirty-one Korean females (20-63 years old; 140.6-173.1 cm; 36.8-106.1 kg) participated as subjects. The HSA and BSA of 65 subjects were directly measured using alginate. The measurements showed 1) the surface area of the hand had a mean of 448 (371-540) cm(2) for males, and 392 (297-482) cm(2) for females. 2) The hand as a percentage of the total body surface area for males and females was 2.5% and 2.4% respectively, showing no significant difference. 3) The hand as a percentage of BSA by body shape was 2.5% for the lean group and 2.3% for overweight people (p=0.001). 4) When estimating the surface area of a hand, formulae based on hand length or hand circumference were more valid than formulae based on height and body weight. We obtained the following formula for estimating HSA: Estimated HSA(cm(2))=1.219 Hand length(cm) x Hand circumference(cm).     

Determination of body surface area and formulas to estimate body surface area using the alginate method

The purpose of this study was to determine the body surface area (BSA) based on the alginate method, to derive formulae for estimating BSA, and to compare the error of the present formula to previous formulas obtained from other countries. We directly measured the entire body surface area of 34 males (20-60 years old, 158.5-187.5 cm in height, 48.5-103.1 kg in body weight) and 31 females (20-63 years old, 140.6-173.1 cm, 36.8-106.1 kg) using alginate. The measurements showed that the BSA had a mean of 18,339 cm(2) (15,416-22,753 cm(2)) for males, and 16,452 cm(2) (12,825-22,025 cm(2)) for females. Based on these measurements, a regression model to estimate BSA was derived: Estimated BSA (cm(2))=73.31 Height (cm)(0.725) x Weight (kg)(0.425) (r(2)=0.999). The mean error of the formula was -0.1%, and did not show any significant difference by gender or body shape. When applied to the datasets (n=506) composed of various races (Caucasians, Africans, and Asians), the mean error of the formula was 0.4% and was smaller than that of DuBois & DuBois's, Gehan & George's, and Mosteller's formulas when applied to the same datasets. The errors of the three previous formulas were also within 2%. Overall, formulas based on the DuBois exponent (Weight(0.425) Height (0.725)) did not show any tendency of overestimation or underestimation by body shape, but other BSA-formulae showed differences by body shape. The present BSA formula has shown good accuracy in Korean adults of all weight categories compared to traditional formulas.     

Climatic influences on human body size and proportions: Ecological adaptations and secular trends

This study reevaluates the long-standing observation that human morphology varies with climate. Data on body mass, the body mass index [BMI; mass (kg)/stature (m)²], the surface area/body mass ratio, and relative sitting height (RSH; sitting height/stature) were obtained for 223 male samples and 195 female samples derived from studies published since D.F. Roberts' landmark paper “Body weight, race, and climate” in 1953 (Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 11:533–558). Current analyses indicate that body mass varies inversely with mean annual temperature in males (r = −0.27, P < 0.001) and females (r = −0.28, P < 0.001), as does the BMI (males: r = −0.22, P = 0.001; females: r = −0.30, P < 0.001). The surface area/body mass ratio is positively correlated with temperature in both sexes (males: r = 0.29, P < 0.001; females: r = 0.34, P < 0.001), whereas the relationship between RSH and temperature is negative (males: r = −0.37, P < 0.001; females: r = −0.46, P < 0.001). These results are consistent with previous work showing that humans follow the ecological rules of Bergmann and Allen. However, the slope of the best-fit regressions between measures of body mass (i.e., mass, BMI, and surface area/mass) and temperature are more modest than those presented by Roberts. These differences appear to be attributable to secular trends in mass, particularly among tropical populations. Body mass and the BMI have increased over the last 40 years, whereas the surface area/body mass ratio has decreased. These findings indicate that, although climatic factors continue to be significant correlates of world-wide variation in human body size and morphology, differential changes in nutrition among tropical, developing world populations have moderated their influence. Am J Phys Anthropol 106:483–503, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Effect of short schemes on body composition measurements using Air-Displacement Plethysmography

Background

Air-displacement plethysmography (ADP) is becoming a popular method to assess body composition. Several studies have shown certain types of clothing can affect measurements of body density, however no study has specifically investigated the effect of cotton gym shorts and spandex bicycle shorts on body density.

Methods

Thirty-seven males (23.0 ± 3.2 yr., 177.3 ± 5.4 cm., 74.8 ± 7.5 kg.) and thirty-eight females (23.7 ± 5.3 yr., 163.6 ± 8.4 cm., 57.1 ± 7.0 kg.) had their body density measured by ADP in three clothing schemes: 1) a tight fitting Speedo^® swim suit (criterion measure), 2) cotton gym shorts, and 3) spandex bicycle shorts. The clothing was provided by the University of Oklahoma Body Composition Laboratory and the testing schemes were performed in random order.

Results

The regression of body density by the criterion measure against body density while wearing cotton gym shorts for the entire group (y = 0.001 + 0.991x, SEE = 0.003 g/cm³) and the females (y = 0.059 + 0.934x, SEE = 0.003 g/cm³) did not significantly deviate from the line of identity. However in males the regression significantly deviated from the line of identity (y = 0.052 + 0.944x, SEE = 0.002 g/cm³). Body density by the criterion measure and body density while wearing spandex bicycle shorts did not significantly differ from the line of identity for the entire group (y = -0.018 + 1.013x SEE = 0.003 g/cm³), in males (y = -0.002 + 1.001x, SEE = 0.003 g/cm³), or females (y = 0.073 + 0.925x, SEE = 0.003 g/cm³). Residual plot analysis revealed no group or gender bias in either the cotton gym shorts or in the spandex bicycle shorts.

Conclusion

It would appear bicycle spandex shorts are an acceptable alternative to a Speedo^® like swim suit, however we advise that subjects adhere to the strict clothing protocol that is recommended by the manufacturer.

     

Effect of age and sex on digestive tract morphometry of guinea fowl (Numida meleagris L.)

As guinea fowl age, their body weights and length of the esophagus and crop increased significantly, and relative length (cm x 100 g b.w(-1)) of the small intestine, caeca and total intestine decreased significantly (P < or = 0.05) in males and females. In addition, 52-week-old males had a significantly higher percentage length of rectum and heart weight, and females a significantly higher gizzard weight compared to 13-week-old birds. Compared to females, adult males differed significantly (P < or = 0.05) in the length of caeca and also in the proportion of the gizzard, proventriculus, heart and liver in total weight.     

Scaling of follicular sizes in mammalian ovaries

The scaling of ovarian follicle and oocyte sizes according to body weight ( M , ranging from 0005–500 kg) has been analysed using data obtained from 22 mammalian species in nine orders. The diameters of non-growing (primordial) follicles were correlated significantly with body weight, the relationship being described by the allometric formula y = 0028 M ^0.10. The mean size at which growing follicles began to accumulate extracellular fluid was approximately the same in all species, 0–3 mm diameter. Graafian follicle sizes varied allometrically with body weight as a result of differences in the volumes of follicular fluid rather than those of oocytes, which were relatively similar in eutherian mammals. The statistical significance of the correlation between Graafian and body sizes was increased when the dimensions for an ovulatory quota of follicles were combined because follicles in polyovulating species were disproportionately small. The total Graafian surface areas and volumes were then predicted from body weight by 58–4 M ^0.65 and 18–5 M ^1.06, respectively. Follicular dimensions in the three species of primates were significantly greater than predicted by the allometric relationship. The exponents of these relationships show that the total volume of a set of preovulatory follicles varies approximately isometrically with body weight and, therefore, with the presumptive hormone distribution volume ( M ^1.0). The hypoallometric relationship of follicular surface area demonstrates that, during the course of the evolution of body size, the surface area for secretion has not increased to match the dilution of hormones in the body pool.     

Differential reproductive success and body size in !Kung San people from northern Namibia

The associations patterns between reproductive success, measured by the total number of offspring, number of living offspring and number of dead offspring, and parental body size, estimated by stature, body weight and Body mass index, were tested in 65 female and 103 male members of a !Kung San population ageing between 25 and 40 years (x = 30.2 yr.) from northern Namibia. In both sexes a significant interaction between fertility patterns and body dimensions was found. Nevertheless, the association patterns differed markedly between the two sexes. While in males tallness and an improved weight status was associated significantly with a higher number of surviving offspring, smaller and lighter females had significantly more surviving children. In males a directional selection towards increased stature and better weight status is in accordance with the well known secular trend of acceleration. In females first of all the postpartum changes in body composition and body weight, resulting from exhausting infant feeding practices seem to support the maternal depletion hypothesis.     

Lumbar ontogenetic allometry and dimorphism in humans. A case for comparison between interspecific and intraspecific scaling

The ontogenetic allometry of the lumbar region of 1913 humans (1228 females and 685 males), ranging from newborn to 21-year-old individuals, was studied by means of length, width, projected surface area and bone mineral density of the segment L2 - L4, obtained by dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). All these parameters were regressed to body mass and height of the individuals, considered alternatively as the independent variable. Firstly, we addressed the comparison between the results obtained on both sexes in order to elucidate whether ontogenetic differences existed. Length of the segments increased significantly faster in females than in males, independently whether the regression was made against body mass or height, while in both types of regression width scaled in males faster than in females. Regarding bone mineral density, although males increased bone mineral density faster than females, slope differences were not significant. However, y-interception was significantly higher in females than in males when bone mineral density was regressed to body mass. Results on length and width are compared with others from previous research on allometry. Finally, global results are discussed as regards the slope predictions for interspecific scaling.     

An analysis of cercopithecoid odontometrics. I. The scaling of the maxillary dentition.

The relations between two tooth indices, post-canine area and incisor width in the upper jaw, and three variables, diet, body weight and body weight dimorphism, were examined separately for the males and females of 29 cercopithecoid species. Each species was assigned to one of three diet classes (folivore, frugivore, omnivore). Data on the other variable consisted of species means (log-transformed) obtained from published sources. The analytic techniques used were bivariate and multiple regression, the tooth indices being the dependent variables. All tooth indices scaled isometrically within diet classes, and all except female incisor width scaled with positive allometry across diet classes. In both sexes, the body weight adjusted mean incisor width of folivores was significantly smaller than that of either frugivores or omnivores. In the females, the body weight adjusted mean post-canine areas did not differ significantly across diet classes, while in the males the omnivores had a larger body weight adjusted mean post-canine area than either the folivores or frugivores. Female post-canine area was the only tooth index for which body weight dimorphism was a significant predictor. Extrapolations of these findings to other extant and to fossil primate species are discussed.     

Adaptive differentiation of body size in speciating mole rats

Summary We report the body weight of 1,653 subterranean mole rats comprising 12 populations and 4 chromosomal species (2n=52, 54, 58 and 60) of the Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies in Israel. The sample was collected from 1970 to 1985 and includes all captured animals with a minimal age of 10 months. The results indicated the following. (a) Body weight of males was significantly higher than that of females. (b) There is a southward latitudinal gradient in body size. Northern animals living in cooler and more productive mesic environments are larger than southern animals living in warmer and less productive xeric environments. (c) The interspecific differences for each sex are statistically significant. (d) Body size is negatively correlated with temperature variables, and positively correlated with plant cover (reflecting productivity or food resources) and rainy days. (e) The best predictors of body size, explaining up to 87% of the variation in size included various combinations of temperature variables and plant cover.We conclude that in both adaptation and speciation natural selection is a major agent of differentiation of body size in accordance with multiple factors, primarily temperature and food resources operating on the energetics balance.     

中国林蛙生长发育参数与产油量关系的研究

为了能够直接通过外部形态特征判断中国林蛙的产油量,本文采用单因素回归和逐步回归分析方法,初步研究了黑龙江省中部地区中国林蛙(Raaa chensinensis David)雌体的体重、体长、前后肢长、卵重、年龄与产油量(左右输卵管重量之和)之间的关系。结果表明：产油量与体重、体长、前肢长、后肢长、卵重、年龄均存在正相关;产油量与体重和体长具有显著的正相关(r=0．930),其回归方程：Y=-0．566 0．016x1 0．072x2。因此,体重和体长可以作为判断产油量多少的重要指标。     

延迟交配对橘小实蝇繁殖适度的影响

橘小实蝇Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel是一种世界性的入侵害虫,严重为害多种经济果蔬。本文通过响应面分析方法,研究了延迟交配对橘小实蝇交配率、产卵量、孵化率和寿命的影响。结果表明,交配率随雌虫交配日龄的延迟先增后减,雌、雄成虫均为35日龄处理组中的交配率最高,为81.00%±2.00%;而雄虫交配日龄的延迟则对其卵孵化率有明显的负面作用,在56日龄雄虫与35日龄雌虫处理组中,其卵孵化率最低,仅为27.56%±4.55%。雌成虫产卵量和寿命受到雌、雄虫双方交配日龄的的影响,产卵量（y）与雄虫日龄（x1）和雌虫日龄（x2）的回归方程为y=514.36+3.08x1-11.05x2,雌成虫寿命（y）与雄虫日龄（x1）和雌虫日龄（x2）的回归方程为y=35.85+0.23x1+0.40x2。研究结果为田间使用性信息素迷向法防治橘小实蝇提供了理论依据。     

Relationship between exchangeable body sodium and urinary 6-keto-prostaglandin F1 alpha excretion in normal man

The renal prostaglandins are involved in the regulation of sodium balance. In the present study exchangeable body sodium (NaE) and the urinary excretion of the stable metabolite of prostacyclin, 6-keto-prostaglandin F1 alpha (6-k-PGF1 alpha) were determined simultaneously in 10 hospitalized healthy individuals. NaE was 1461 +/- 107 mmol/m2 body surface area, or 98.5 +/- 6.9% when expressed as percent of the normal value assessed on the basis of measurements in 54 control subjects. The excretion of 6-k-PGF1 alpha amounted to 68.3 +/- 39.2 ng/4 hr. Statistical evaluation revealed significant correlation between NaE and PGF1 alpha excretion (r = 0.642; p less than 0.05) and between the serum Na concentration and the urinary excretion of 6-k-PGF1 alpha (r = 0.865; p less than 0.001). The obtained results indicate that urinary 6-k-PGF1 alpha excretion, hence the renal synthesis of prostacyclin, are regulated, among other factors, by body sodium stores. The increased production of prostacyclin with expanding sodium space might be regarded as a compensatory response contributing to the renal elimination of excess sodium from the body. The signal to this response could be the serum Na concentration.     

Renal excretion ofγ-carboxyglutamic acid and metabolic rate in 3–18 years old humans

Summary The modified amino acid y-carboxyglutamic acid (Gla) occurs in several proteins such as prothrombin, blood coagulation factors VII, IX and X, proteins C, S and Z as well as matrix Gla protein and osteocalcin. The amount of Gla excreted in urine is a common indicator of the whole-body degradation of these proteins. We have determined the renal excretion rates of Gla in 3, 6,10,14 and 18 years old male and female human subjects (n = 14 per age group and sex) and calculated the respective resting metabolic rates (RMR) on the basis of the body weights using published formulas. We found high correlations between the excretion rates of Gla (µmol/d/kg body weight) and the RMR (kJ/d/kg body weight) in the females (n = 70) of r = 0.70 (y = 0.003x + 0.29) and in the males (n = 70) of r = 0.70 (y = 0.0038x + 0.27) and in all subjects (n = 140) of r = 0.69 (y = 0.0035x + 0.27); p < 0.01. We postulate that in children and adolescents a causal relationship exists between the whole-body degradation rate of Gla containing proteins and the metabolic rate.     

A comparative study of postpneumonectomy compensatory lung response in growing male and female rats.

Postpneumonectomy compensatory lung response and normal lung growth in the early postnatal period were studied in male and female rats. Four-week-old litter-matched male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to left pneumonectomy or sham operation and followed for 3 wk. In both sexes after pneumonectomy, lung weight (WL), lung volume (VL), alveolar surface area (Sw), total alveolar number (N(at)), and the amount of DNA and protein increased significantly. In both males and females, WL, VL, and Sw matched those of both lungs of the sham-operated group, but N(at) and the amount of DNA and protein did not. Female pneumonectomy and sham-operated rats were smaller in body weight than males. Absolute WL, VL, Sw, N(at), and the amount of DNA and protein were significantly lower, but specific parameters (per unit body weight) were significantly greater in females than in males. After pneumonectomy, the postcaval lobe increased most in volume (70 and 73% in males and females, respectively). Mean linear intercept and mean chord length of alveoli increased, and the number of alveoli per unit volume decreased more in the postcaval and middle lobes than in upper and lower lobes in both sexes. Postpneumonectomy, loss of elastic lung recoil was observed in females. We conclude that, in certain aspects (WL, VL), compensatory growth matched both lungs of controls, but in others (biochemical, morphometric) it did not. There was evidence of alveolar multiplication, but the dominant effect was enlargement of air spaces.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Investigations on the circulation of anesthetized dogs.

In the present experiments arterial blood pressure, cardiac output, heart rate, oxygen consumption, AVO2 difference values and their changes were investigated in 64 anesthetized dogs in four periods for altogether 60 min. Blood flows of the renal, commune carotid and femoral arteries were measured in parallel and the changes were recorded throughout the 60 min of the experimental period. Urine was collected separately from both kidneys, in order to determine whether the measurement of the blood flow of the renal artery disturbed renal functions. Total peripheral vascular resistance and the vascular resistance of the territories of the commune carotid and femoral arteries were calculated from the parameters measured. In the present experiments the equation of the regression line between cardiac output and body weight was y = 0.102x + 0.9411. The equation of the regression line between cardiac output an body surface proved to be y = 2.996x + 0.653. The relationship between total oxygen consumption and body weight could be characterized by the y = 5.815x + 24.227 equation. Our data were in accordance with data of the Biology Data Book obtained in dogs anesthetized by pentobarbital. Our present data can be found but partially in the Biology Data Book, so the results obtained in the present study may serve as basis of future comparisons. In this work proper care was taken to maintain the same conditions and, thus ruling out possible artefacts. The experiments were carried out on mongrel dogs of different sexes; nevertheless, the animals were attempted to be kept under the same conditions for the 14 days preceding the experiments.     

Body size and composition of elephant seals (Mirounga leonine): absolute measurements and estimates from bone dimensions

The major body components (bone, muscle, blubber, viscera and connective tissue) of 94 elephant seals were dissected and weighed.
Seals in growth phase 3 (more than ten weeks old) had significantly more muscle and viscera and less blubber than seals in growth phases 1 and 2 (less than ten weeks old) of similar body weight. There were no significant differences in body composition between sexes before sexual maturity, but after sexual maturity was attained males had relatively more muscle, and less bone and viscera, than females.
Prediction equations relating body component weight and body weight were derived by regression analysis. These were very highly significant, and could be used to estimate body composition from body weight.
It was demonstrated that body length could be estimated from linear measurements of some bones, which would enable an estimate of size and composition of seals to be made from bone dimensions.