Palynological investigations into the Late Pleistocene and Holocene history of vegetation and settlement at the Löddigsee, Mecklenburg, Germany

A Late Pleistocene and Holocene sediment core from the nowadays terrestrialised portion of the Löddigsee in Southern Mecklenburg, Germany was palynologically investigated. The lake is situated in the rarely investigated Young moraine area at the transition from the Weichselian to the Saalian glaciation. The high-resolution pollen diagram contributes to the establishment of the north-eastern German Late Pleistocene pollen stratigraphy. The vegetation distribution pattern after the end of the Weichselian is in good agreement with other studies from North-eastern Germany, but also has its own characteristics. The Holocene vegetation development reveals features from the north-eastern and north-western German lowlands. A special focus was laid on the environmental history of the two settlements on an island within the lake (Late Neolithic and Younger Slavic period), which were preserved under moist conditions. Both settlements were constructed during a period of low lake level. Although there is evidence of agriculture in the area during the respective periods, the two island settlements seem to have served other purposes.     

Modern macaque dietary heterogeneity assessed using stable isotope analysis of hair and bone

Dietary variability might have been a major factor in the dispersal and subsequent persistence of the genus Macaca in both tropical and temperate areas. Macaques are found from northern Africa to Japan, yet there have been few systematic attempts to compare diets between different modern populations. Here we have taken a direct approach and sampled museum-curated tissues (hair and bone) of Macaca mulatta (rhesus macaques) for carbon and nitrogen stable isotope dietary analyses. Samples from India, Vietnam, and Burma (Myanmar) were taken, representing both tropical and temperate populations. The δ¹³C values obtained from hair show that the temperate macaques, particularly those from Uttar Pradesh, have a δ¹³C signature that indicates at least some use of C₄ resources, while the tropical individuals have a C₃-based diet. However, δ¹³C values from bone bioapatite indicate a C₃-based diet for all specimens and they do not show the C₄ usage seen in the hair of some animals, possibly because bone represents a much longer turnover period than that of hair. The results of δ¹⁵N analyses grouped animals by geographic region of origin, which may be related to local soil nitrogen values. The greatest variation in δ¹⁵N values was seen in the specimens from Burma, which may be partly due to seasonality, as specimens were collected at different times of year. We also investigated the relationship between the hair, bone collagen, and bone bioapatite δ¹³C results, and found that they are highly correlated, and that one tissue can be used to extrapolate results for another. However, our results also suggest that hair may pick up discrete feeding traces (such as seasonal usage), which are lost when only bone collagen and bioapatite are examined. This has important implications for dietary reconstructions of archaeological and paleontological populations.     

Paleoclimate during Neandertal and anatomically modern human occupation at Amud and Qafzeh, Israel: the stable isotope data

The δ¹³C(en) and δ¹⁸O(en) values of goat and gazelle enamel carbonate indicate that Neandertals at Amud Cave, Israel (53-70 ka) lived under different ecological conditions than did anatomically modern humans at Qafzeh Cave, Israel (approximately 92 ka). During the Last Glacial Period, Neandertals at Amud Cave lived under wetter conditions than those in the region today. Neither faunal species ate arid-adapted C₄ plants or drought-stressed C₃ plants. The variation in gazelle δ¹⁸O(en) values suggests multiple birth seasons, which today occur under wetter than normal conditions. The magnitude and pattern of intra-tooth variation in goat δ¹⁸O(en) values indicate that rain fell throughout the year unlike today.Anatomically modern humans encountered a Qafzeh Cave region that was more open and arid than Glacial Period Amud Cave, and more open than today's Upper Galilee region. Goat δ¹³C(en) values indicate feeding on varying amounts of C₄ plants throughout the year. The climate apparently ameliorated higher in the sequence; but habitats remained more open than at Amud Cave. Both gazelles and goats fed on C₃ plants in brushy habitats without any inclusion of C₄ plants. The magnitude of intra-tooth variation in goat δ¹⁸O(en) values, however, suggest that some rain fell throughout the year, and the relative representation of woodland dwelling species indicates the occurrence of woodlands in the region.Climate differences affecting the distribution of plants and animals appear to be the significant factor contributing to behavioral differences previously documented between Neandertals and anatomically modern humans in the region. Climate forcing probably affected the early appearances of anatomically modern humans, although not the disappearance of Neandertals from the Levant.     

Predicting diet, trophic level and palaeoecology from bone stable isotope analysis: a comparative study of five red deer populations

C and N stable isotope ratios of red deer (Cervus elaphus) bone collagen (154 individuals) from five modern populations occupying geographically different habitats are reported. No significant difference was observed between deer occupying forested and non-forested environments subject to similar climatic conditions suggesting a simple “canopy effect” is not observed. Mean population δ¹³C is negatively correlated with temperature whereas mean population δ¹⁵N is positively correlated with temperature. A weak but significant positive correlation was observed between deer age and collagen δ¹³C values from the Isle of Rum population (Scotland). The amount of intra-population isotope variability is not consistent among populations; thus significant numbers of individuals from each species are required for modern food web studies, for palaeodietary baseline data, and for palaeoecological studies.     

Trophic ecology of Pacific salmon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus</Emphasis> spp.) in the ocean: a synthesis of stable isotope research

Increasing interest in the marine trophic dynamics of Pacific salmon has been motivated by the recognition of their sensitivity to changing climate and to the competitive effects of hatchery fish on wild stocks. It has become more common to use stable isotopes to supplement traditional diet studies of salmon in the ocean; however, there have been no integrated syntheses of these data to determine whether stable isotope analyses support the existing conventional wisdom of feeding strategies of the Pacific salmon. We performed a meta-analysis of stable isotope data to examine the extent of trophic partitioning among five species of Pacific salmon during their marine lives. Pink, sockeye, and chum salmon showed very high overlap in resource use and there was no consistent evidence for chum relying on alternative food webs dominated by gelatinous zooplankton. δ¹⁵N showed that Chinook and coho salmon fed at trophic levels higher than the other three species. In addition, these two species were distinctly enriched in ¹³C, suggesting more extensive use of coastal food webs compared to the more depleted (pelagic) signatures of pink, sockeye, and chum salmon. This paper presents the first synthesis of stable isotope work on Pacific salmon and provides δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C values applicable to research on the fate of the marine derived nutrients these organisms transport to freshwater and riparian ecosystems.     

Trophodynamic linkage between river runoff and coastal fishery yield elucidated by stable isotope data in the Gulf of Lions (NW Mediterranean)

The link between climate-driven river runoff and sole fishery yields observed in the Gulf of Lions (NW Mediterranean) was analysed using carbon- and nitrogen stable isotopes along the flatfish food webs. Off the Rhone River, the main terrestrial (river POM) and marine (seawater POM) sources of carbon differed in ¹³C (–26.11 and –22.36, respectively). Surface sediment and suspended POM in plume water exhibited low ¹³C (–24.38 and –24.70, respectively) that differed more from the seawater POM than from river POM, demonstrating the dominance of terrestrial material in those carbon pools. Benthic invertebrates showed a wide range in ¹⁵N (mean 4.30 to 9.77) and ¹³C (mean –23.81 to –18.47), suggesting different trophic levels, diets and organic sources. Among the macroinvertebrates, the surface (mean ¹³C –23.71) and subsurface (mean ¹³C –23.81) deposit-feeding polychaetes were particularly ¹³C depleted, indicating that their carbon was mainly derived from terrestrial material. In flatfish, ¹⁵N (mean 9.42 to 10.93) and ¹³C (mean –19.95 to –17.69) varied among species, indicating differences in food source and terrestrial POM use. A significant negative correlation was observed between the percentage by weight of polychaetes in the diet and the ¹³C of flatfish white muscle. Solea solea (the main polychaete feeder) had the lowest mean ¹³C, Arnoglossus laterna and Buglossidium luteum (crustacean, mollusc and polychaete feeders) had intermediate values, and Solea impar (mollusc feeder) and Citharus linguatula (crustacean and fish feeder) exhibited the highest ¹³C. Two different benthic food webs were thus identified off the Rhone River, one based on marine planktonic carbon and the other on the terrestrial POM carried by the river. Deposit-feeding polychaetes were responsible for the main transfer of terrestrial POM to upper trophic levels, linking sole population dynamics to river runoff fluctuations.     

Plant responses to elevated CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> concentration at different scales: leaf,whole plant,canopy, and population

Elevated CO₂ enhances photosynthesis and growth of plants, but the enhancement is strongly influenced by the availability of nitrogen. In this article, we summarise our studies on plant responses to elevated CO₂. The photosynthetic capacity of leaves depends not only on leaf nitrogen content but also on nitrogen partitioning within a leaf. In Polygonum cuspidatum, nitrogen partitioning among the photosynthetic components was not influenced by elevated CO₂ but changed between seasons. Since the alteration in nitrogen partitioning resulted in different CO₂-dependence of photosynthetic rates, enhancement of photosynthesis by elevated CO₂ was greater in autumn than in summer. Leaf mass per unit area (LMA) increases in plants grown at elevated CO₂. This increase was considered to have resulted from the accumulation of carbohydrates not used for plant growth. With a sensitive analysis of a growth model, however, we suggested that the increase in LMA is advantageous for growth at elevated CO₂ by compensating for the reduction in leaf nitrogen concentration per unit mass. Enhancement of reproductive yield by elevated CO₂ is often smaller than that expected from vegetative growth. In Xanthium canadense, elevated CO₂ did not increase seed production, though the vegetative growth increased by 53%. As nitrogen concentration of seeds remained constant at different CO₂ levels, we suggest that the availability of nitrogen limited seed production at elevated CO₂ levels. We found that leaf area development of plant canopy was strongly constrained by the availability of nitrogen rather than by CO₂. In a rice field cultivated at free-air CO₂ enrichment, the leaf area index (LAI) increased with an increase in nitrogen availability but did not change with CO₂ elevation. We determined optimal LAI to maximise canopy photosynthesis and demonstrated that enhancement of canopy photosynthesis by elevated CO₂ was larger at high than at low nitrogen availability. We also studied competitive asymmetry among individuals in an even-aged, monospecific stand at elevated CO₂. Light acquisition (acquired light per unit aboveground mass) and utilisation (photosynthesis per unit acquired light) were calculated for each individual in the stand. Elevated CO₂ enhanced photosynthesis and growth of tall dominants, which reduced the light availability for shorter subordinates and consequently increased size inequality in the stand.     

Weaning age among foragers at Matjes river rock shelter, South Africa, from stable nitrogen and carbon isotope analyses

Matjes River Rock Shelter is a large shell midden on the southern coast of South Africa. Stable nitrogen (delta(15)N) and carbon (delta(13)C) isotope ratios were measured in bone collagen and dentine from human skeletons excavated from this site in order to establish a weaning curve in mid-Holocene hunter-gatherers. delta(15)N results show a progressive increase in individuals from birth to 1.5 years old. delta(13)C results are more tightly clustered and mirror the steady progressive change seen for delta(15)N. We deduce that children at Matjes River Rock Shelter were breastfed for at least the first 1.5 years after birth, and were weaned sometime between 2-4 years of age. A similar pattern was documented for historic-era Kalahari foraging people, where the interbirth spacing was approximately 3 years. This study provides the first direct evidence for an extended period of breastfeeding, and thus long interbirth intervals, among prehistoric foragers, even when those foragers lived in an environment with abundant food resources.     

Seasonality in nutrient concentrations and stable isotope ratios of Halophila ovalis growing on the intertidal flat of SW Thailand

Halophila ovalis on the intertidal flat of SW Thailand maintains its presence under heavy grazing by dugongs; nevertheless, the site provides lower availability of nutrients in the water column to the seagrasses due to emersion during ebb tide. To examine the seasonality of the nutrient status of fast-growing H. ovalis in the intertidal flat, and to assess whether emersion at low tide affects the availability of nutrients and inorganic carbon, monthly changes in carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) concentrations of H. ovalis were determined. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios were also determined to examine the carbon and nitrogen sources. CNP concentrations of the leaves and petioles of H. ovalis at the intertidal flat were considerably lower than those of the same species previously reported from a subtidal environment throughout the observation period of 8 months. The δ¹³C of the above-ground parts of H. ovalis was lower than in previous reports, suggesting that CO₂ was sufficient for its growth. The CNP concentrations of H. ovalis on the intertidal flat increased after a decrease in grazing pressure by dugongs. It is suggested that H. ovalis sustained rapid growth on the intertidal flat by lowering its nutrient concentrations under heavy grazing by dugongs to maintain its presence. Received: March 2, 2001 / Accepted: June 6, 2001     

The stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of vegetation in tropical forests of the Amazon Basin, Brazil

Here we present the within-site, seasonal, and interannual variations of the carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) isotope ratios of leaves, wood, bark and litter from four sites in the Amazon region, Brazil. Samples were collected in Manaus (3° 06′07′′ S; 60°01′30′′ W), Ji-Paraná (10°53′07′′ S; 61°57′06′′ W), and Santarém (2°26′35′′ S; 54°42′30′′ W) with mean annual precipitation of 2207, 2040 and 1909 mm respectively. The overall average for all leaf samples was for δ¹³C and for δ¹⁵N (n=756). The leaf δ values at these sites were often but not always statistically distinct from each other. The δ¹³C values varied from to . Pronounced differences in δ¹³C values occurred with height associated with differences in forest structure. The δ¹³C of leaf dry matter showed seasonal variations associated with the length of the dry season, despite the fact that total annual precipitation was similar among the studied sites. Leaf δ¹⁵N values ranged from to a maximum value of , and the Santarém sites showed more enriched values than Manaus and Ji-Paraná sites. No seasonal variation was detected in the δ¹⁵N of leaves, but significant differences were observed among sites and with changes in canopy height. The isotope ratio data are consistent with our current understanding of the roles of light, water availability, and recycling of soil-respired CO₂ influences on δ¹³C and consistent with our understanding that an open nitrogen cycle can lead to high δ¹⁵N values despite a significant number of legumes in the vegetation.     

Multivariate carbon and nitrogen stable isotope model for the reconstruction of prehistoric human diet

Using a sample of published archaeological data, we expand on an earlier bivariate carbon model for diet reconstruction by adding bone collagen nitrogen stable isotope values (δ(15) N), which provide information on trophic level and consumption of terrestrial vs. marine protein. The bivariate carbon model (δ(13) C(apatite) vs. δ(13) C(collagen) ) provides detailed information on the isotopic signatures of whole diet and dietary protein, but is limited in its ability to distinguish between C(4) and marine protein. Here, using cluster analysis and discriminant function analysis, we generate a multivariate diet reconstruction model that incorporates δ(13) C(apatite) , δ(13) C(collagen) , and δ(15) N holistically. Inclusion of the δ(15) N data proves useful in resolving protein-related limitations of the bivariate carbon model, and splits the sample into five distinct dietary clusters. Two significant discriminant functions account for 98.8% of the sample variance, providing a multivariate model for diet reconstruction. Both carbon variables dominate the first function, while δ(15) N most strongly influences the second. Independent support for the functions' ability to accurately classify individuals according to diet comes from a small sample of experimental rats, which cluster as expected from their diets. The new model also provides a statistical basis for distinguishing between food sources with similar isotopic signatures, as in a previously analyzed archaeological population from Saipan (see Ambrose et al.: AJPA 104(1997) 343-361). Our model suggests that the Saipan islanders' (13) C-enriched signal derives mainly from sugarcane, not seaweed. Further development and application of this model can similarly improve dietary reconstructions in archaeological, paleontological, and primatological contexts.     

Evaluating marine diets through radiocarbon dating and stable isotope analysis of victims of the AD79 eruption of vesuvius

The stable carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) isotope values of bone collagen are frequently used in paleodietary studies to assess the marine contribution to an individual's diet. Surprisingly, the relationship between stable isotope these values characteristics and the percentage of marine foods in diet has never been effectively demonstrated. To clarify this relationship, the stable isotope values and radiocarbon dates of nine humans and one sheep from Herculaneum, all who perished simultaneously during the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius, were determined. Significant differences were found in the radiocarbon dates which are attributable to the incorporation of “old” carbon from the marine reservoir. The magnitude of the observed differences was linearly correlated with both δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values allowing the response of each isotope to increasing marine carbon in collagen to be independently verified. Regression analyses showed that for every 1‰ enrichment in δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N, 56 years and 34 years were added to the radiocarbon age, respectively. Predictions of the maximum marine reservoir age differed considerably depending on which stable isotope was considered. This discrepancy is attributed to some degree of macronutrient scrambling whereby nitrogen from marine protein is preferentially incorporated in collagen over marine carbon. It is suggested that the macronutrient scrambling explains the observed relationship between δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N from Roman coastal sites and should be considered when interpreting any diet which is not dominated by protein. Nevertheless, without knowing the degree of macronutrient scrambling in different dietary scenarios, the accuracy of dietary reconstructions is severely compromised. Am J Phys Anthropol 152:345–352, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Wetting and drying cycles drive variations in the stable carbon isotope ratio of respired carbon dioxide in semi-arid grassland

In semi-arid regions, where plants using both C₃ and C₄ photosynthetic pathways are common, the stable C isotope ratio (δ¹³C) of ecosystem respiration (δ¹³C_R) is strongly variable seasonally and inter-annually. Improved understanding of physiological and environmental controls over these variations will improve C cycle models that rely on the isotopic composition of atmospheric CO₂. We hypothesized that timing of precipitation events and antecedent moisture interact with activity of C₃ and C₄ grasses to determine net ecosystem CO₂ exchange (NEE) and δ¹³C_R. Field measurements included CO₂ and δ¹³C fluxes from the whole ecosystem and from patches of different plant communities, biomass and δ¹³C of plants and soils over the 2000 and 2001 growing seasons. NEE shifted from C source to sink in response to rainfall events, but this shift occurred after a time lag of up to 2 weeks if a dry period preceded the rainfall. The seasonal average of δ¹³C_R was higher in 2000 (−16‰) than 2001 (20‰), probably due to drier conditions during the 2000 growing season (79.7 mm of precipitation from April up to and including July) than in 2001 (189 mm). During moist conditions, δ¹³C averaged −22‰ from C₃ patches, −16‰ from C₄ patches, and −19‰ from mixed C₃ and C₄ patches. However, during dry conditions the apparent spatial differences were not obvious, suggesting reduced autotrophic activity in C₄ grasses with shallow rooting depth, soon after the onset of dry conditions. Air and soil temperatures were negatively correlated with δ¹³C_R; vapor pressure deficit was a poor predictor of δ¹³C_R, in contrast to more mesic ecosystems. Responses of respiration components to precipitation pulses were explained by differences in soil moisture thresholds between C₃ and C₄ species. Stable isotopic composition of respiration in semi-arid ecosystems is more temporally and spatially variable than in mesic ecosystems owing to dynamic aspects of pulse precipitation episodes and biological drivers.     

甘肃苏苗塬头地点石制品特征与古环境分析

苏苗塬头地点位于甘肃省平凉市庄浪县东北部, 埋藏于章麻河二级阶地的典型马兰黄土中。经剖面清理和地表采集, 2002和2004年在该地点共获得石制品2318件, 本文以集中分布区出土(2166件)和地表采集(48件)共2214件石制品为主要研究对象。该批石制品以石片、碎片和碎屑为主, 有少量石核和工具。剥片技术以砸击法为主, 锤击法为辅, 鲜见第二步加工。石制品原料主要为来自现代河床或阶地底部砾石层的脉石英。炭屑加速器质谱(AMS 14C)年代测试和多环境代用指标分析显示, 苏苗塬头为一处旧石器时代晚期文化地点, 人类活动主要发生于气候干冷的末次盛冰期(约距今2.4—1.8万年), 反映了古人类较强的环境适应能力。     

Fresh investigations into the natural and anthropogenically influenced vegetation of the earlier Holocene in the Elbe-Saale Region,Central Germany

At present the central part of the Elbe-Saale area is characterized by subcontinental climatic conditions. Palynological investigations at Zöschen show that, even in pre-Neolithic times, the composition of the primeval forest in this part of Germany had its own distinctive features. On the basis of the palynological results, the existence of natural steppe Holocene is improbable, the region being covered by forests since ca. 9 500 B.P., i.e. the Preboreal. The appearance of anthropochores or culture dependent plants and the beginning of flood loam sedimentation as a result of soil erosion indicate human impact from ca. 6 000 B.P., i.e. the end of the older Atlantic. At Eilsleben changes of tree and shrub frequencies are combined with the occurrence of anthropogenic indicator herb species. These palynological features suggest agricultural expansion phases that are interrupted by regression phases in the early and middle Neolithic (ca. 6 500-2 500 B.P.).     

Life history of the individuals buried in the St. Benedict Cemetery (Prague, 15th–18th Centuries): Insights from 14C dating and stable isotope (δ13C, δ15N, δ18O) analysis

Funerary practices and bioarchaeological (sex and age) data suggest that a mortality crisis linked to an epidemic episode occurred during the fifth phase of the St. Benedict cemetery in Prague (Czech Republic). To identify this mass mortality episode, we reconstructed individual life histories (dietary and mobility factors), assessed the population's biological homogeneity, and proposed a new chronology through stable isotope analysis (δ¹³C, δ¹⁸O and δ¹⁵N) and direct radiocarbon dating. Stable isotope analysis was conducted on the bone and tooth enamel (collagen and carbonate) of 19 individuals from three multiple graves (MG) and 12 individuals from individual graves (IG). The δ¹⁵N values of collagen and the difference between the δ¹³C values of collagen and bone carbonate could indicate that the IG individuals had a richer protein diet than the MG individuals or different food resources. The human bone and enamel carbonate and δ¹⁸O values suggest that the majority of individuals from MG and all individuals from IG spent most of their lives outside of the Bohemian region. Variations in δ¹⁸O values also indicate that all individuals experienced residential mobility during their lives. The stable isotope results, biological (age and sex) data and eight ¹⁴C dates clearly differentiate the MG and IG groups. The present work provides evidence for the reuse of the St. Benedict cemetery to bury soldiers despite the funeral protest ban (1635 AD). The Siege of Prague (1742 AD) by French‐Bavarian‐Saxon armies is identified as the cause of the St. Benedict mass mortality event. Am J Phys Anthropol 151:202–214, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Middle Pleistocene ecology and Neanderthal subsistence: Insights from stable isotope analyses in Payre (Ardèche,southeastern France)

The Middle Palaeolithic site of Payre in southeastern France yields abundant archaeological material associated with fossil hominid remains. With its long sequence of Middle Pleistocene deposits, Payre is a key site to study the Middle Palaeolithic chronology of this region. This study is the first to investigate carbon and oxygen isotope contents of Neanderthal tooth enamel bioapatite, together with a wide range of herbivorous and carnivorous species. The aim is to contribute to the understanding of hunting behaviour, resource partitioning, diet and habitat use of animals and Neanderthals through a palaeoecological reconstruction.     

Belemnite ecology and the environment of the Nusplingen Plattenkalk (Late Jurassic,southern Germany): evidence from stable isotope data

The late Kimmeridgian Nusplingen Plattenkalk (palaeolatitude ~30°N) is one of the well‐known European Plattenkalk konservatlagerstätten. The laminated limestones of this lagerstätte have been deposited in a shallow lagoon, surrounded by sponge‐microbial mounds, some of which formed small islands. Plattenkalk sediments are often thought to have been deposited below a halocline, which was induced by high evaporation rates. By measuring the stable isotope composition of belemnite rostra (n = 27) of the species Hibolithes semisulcatus, the depositional environment of the Nusplingen Plattenkalk has been investigated. Cathodoluminescence‐microscopy and trace element analysis have been applied to check for diagenetic alteration of the studied rostra. The mean δ¹³C of the well‐preserved rostra is +0.03 ± 0.27‰, the mean δ¹⁸O ?0.68 ± 0.3‰. A narrow range of stable isotope data acquired from an accumulation of rostra, regurgitated by a fish or reptile, supports the notion that belemnite calcite reflects environmental conditions. The palaeontological and sedimentological findings suggest that H. semisulcatus was autochthonous to the Nusplingen Plattenkalk. Anoxic conditions prevailed in the sediments and temporarily in the water‐column above the sediment/bottom water interface. A nektobenthic life style can be excluded for the Nusplingen belemnites; a demersal life style seems unlikely. Comparison with δ¹⁸O_bel data from other latitudes indicates that a latitudinal gradient played a role in the δ¹⁸O composition of seawater. A pelagic, inner shelf setting is therefore suggested for the Plattenkalk, an interpretation that is supported by palaeontological evidence. It is here proposed that the formation of the Nusplingen Plattenkalk was not caused by salinity stratification. It is further suggested that the belemnites were not restricted to deep‐water settings, but also occurred in shallow waters and higher in the water‐column.