A unified approach to the evolutionary consequences of genetic and nongenetic inheritance

Inheritance-the influence of ancestors on the phenotypes of their descendants-translates natural selection into evolutionary change. For the past century, inheritance has been conceptualized almost exclusively as the transmission of DNA sequence variation from parents to offspring in accordance with Mendelian rules, but advances in cell and developmental biology have now revealed a rich array of inheritance mechanisms. This empirical evidence calls for a unified conception of inheritance that combines genetic and nongenetic mechanisms and encompasses the known range of transgenerational effects, including the transmission of genetic and epigenetic variation, the transmission of plastic phenotypes (acquired traits), and the effects of parental environment and genotype on offspring phenotype. We propose a unified theoretical framework based on the Price equation that can be used to model evolution under an expanded inheritance concept that combines the effects of genetic and nongenetic inheritance. To illustrate the utility and generality of this framework, we show how it can be applied to a variety of scenarios, including nontransmissible environmental noise, maternal effects, indirect genetic effects, transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, RNA-mediated inheritance, and cultural inheritance.     

THE COADAPTATION OF PARENTAL AND OFFSPRING CHARACTERS

Parents often have important influences on their offspring's traits and/or fitness (i.e., maternal or paternal effects). When offspring fitness is determined by the joint influences of offspring and parental traits, selection may favor particular combinations that generate high offspring fitness. We show that this epistasis for fitness between the parental and offspring genotypes can result in the evolution of their joint distribution, generating genetic correlations between the parental and offspring characters. This phenomenon can be viewed as a coadaptive process in which offspring genotypes evolve to function with the parentally provided environment and, in turn, the genes for this environment become associated with specific offspring genes adapted to it. To illustrate this point, we present two scenarios in which selection on offspring alone alters the correlation between a maternal and an offspring character. We use a quantitative genetic maternal effect model combined with a simple quadratic model of fitness to examine changes in the linkage disequilibrium between the maternal and offspring genotypes. In the first scenario, stabilizing selection on a maternally affected offspring character results in a genetic correlation that is opposite in sign to the maternal effect. In the second scenario, directional selection on an offspring trait that shows a nonadditive maternal effect can result in selection for positive covariances between the traits. This form of selection also results in increased genetic variation in maternal and offspring characters, and may, in the extreme case, promote host-race formation or speciation. This model provides a possible evolutionary explanation for the ubiquity of large genetic correlations between maternal and offspring traits, and suggests that this pattern of coinheritance may reflect functional relationships between these characters (i.e., functional integration).     

PATERNAL CARE: DIRECT AND INDIRECT GENETIC EFFECTS OF FATHERS ON OFFSPRING PERFORMANCE

Knowledge of how genetic effects arising from parental care influence the evolution of offspring traits comes almost exclusively from studies of maternal care. However, males provide care in some taxa, and often this care differs from females in quality or quantity. If variation in paternal care is genetically based then, like maternal care and maternal effects, paternal effects may have important consequences for the evolution of offspring traits via indirect genetic effects (IGEs). IGEs and direct–indirect genetic covariances associated with parental care can contribute substantially to total heritability and influence predictions about how traits respond to selection. It is unknown, however, if the magnitude and sign of parental effects arising from fathers are the same as those arising from mothers. We used a reciprocal cross‐fostering experiment to quantify environmental and genetic effects of paternal care on offspring performance in the burying beetle, Nicrophorus vespilloides. We found that IGEs were substantial and direct–indirect genetic covariances were negative. Combined, these patterns led to low total heritabilities for offspring performance traits. Thus, under paternal care, offspring performance traits are unlikely to evolve in response to selection, and variation in these traits will be maintained in the population despite potentially strong selection on these traits. These patterns are similar to those generated by maternal care, indicating that the genetic effects of care on offspring performance are independent of the caregiver's sex.     

The role of maternal and paternal effects in the evolution of parental quality by sexual selection

Genetic models of maternal effects and models of mate choice have focused on the evolutionary effects of variation in parental quality. There have been, however, few attempts to combine these into a single model for the evolution of sexually selected traits. We present a quantitative genetic model that considers how male and female parental quality (together or separately) affect the expression of a sexually selected offspring trait. We allow female choice of males based on this parentally affected trait and examine the evolution of mate choice, parental quality and the indicator trait. Our model reveals a number of consequences of maternal and paternal effects. (1) The force of sexual selection owing to adaptive mate choice can displace parental quality from its natural selection optimum. (2) The force of sexual selection can displace female parental quality from its natural selection optimum even when nonadaptive mate choice occurs (e.g. runaway sexual selection), because females of higher parental quality produce more attractive sons and these sons counterbalance the loss in fitness owing to over-investment in each offspring. (3) Maternal and paternal effects can provide a source of genetic variation for offspring traits, allowing evolution by sexual selection even when those traits do not show direct genetic variation (i.e. are not heritable). (4) The correlation between paternal investment and the offspring trait influenced by the parental effects can result in adaptive mate choice and lead to the elaboration of both female preference and the male sexually selected trait. When parental effects exist, sexual selection can drive the evolution of parental quality when investment increases the attractiveness of offspring, leading to the elaboration of indicator traits and higher than expected levels of parental investment.     

How stabilizing selection and nongenetic inheritance combine to shape the evolution of phenotypic plasticity

Relatively little is known about whether and how nongenetic inheritance interacts with selection to impact the evolution of phenotypic plasticity. Here, we empirically evaluated how stabilizing selection and a common form of nongenetic inheritance—maternal environmental effects—jointly influence the evolution of phenotypic plasticity in natural populations of spadefoot toads. We compared populations that previous fieldwork has shown to have evolved conspicuous plasticity in resource‐use phenotypes (“resource polyphenism”) with those that, owing to stabilizing selection favouring a narrower range of such phenotypes, appear to have lost this plasticity. We show that: (a) this apparent loss of plasticity in nature reflects a condition‐dependent maternal effect and not a genetic loss of plasticity, that is “genetic assimilation,” and (b) this plasticity is not costly. By shielding noncostly plasticity from selection, nongenetic inheritance generally, and maternal effects specifically, can preclude genetic assimilation from occurring and consequently impede adaptive (genetic) evolution.     

Estimates of direct and indirect effects for early juvenile survival in captive populations maintained for conservation purposes: the case of Cuvier's gazelle

Together with the avoidance of any negative impact of inbreeding, preservation of genetic variability for life‐history traits that could undergo future selective pressure is a major issue in endangered species management programmes. However, most of these programmes ignore that, apart from the direct action of genes on such traits, parents, as contributors of offspring environment, can influence offspring performance through indirect parental effects (when parental genotype and phenotype exerts environmental influences on offspring phenotype independently of additive genetic effects). Using quantitative genetic models, we estimated the additive genetic variance for juvenile survival in a population of the endangered Cuvier's gazelle kept in captivity since 1975. The dataset analyzed included performance recording for 700 calves and a total pedigree of 740 individuals. Results indicated that in this population juvenile survival harbors significant additive genetic variance. The estimates of heritability obtained were in general moderate (0.115–0.457) and not affected by the inclusion of inbreeding in the models. Maternal genetic contribution to juvenile survival seems to be of major importance in this gazelle's population as well. Indirect genetic and indirect environmental effects assigned to mothers (i.e., maternal genetic and maternal permanent environmental effects) roughly explain a quarter of the total variance estimated for the trait analyzed. These findings have major evolutionary consequences for the species as show that offspring phenotypes can evolve strictly through changes in the environment provided by mothers. They are also relevant for the captive breeding programme of the species. To take into account, the contribution that mothers have on offspring phenotype through indirect genetic effects when designing pairing strategies might serve to identify those females with better ability to recruit, and, additionally, to predict reliable responses to selection in the captive population.     

Carryover effects from natal habitat type upon competitive ability lead to trait divergence or source–sink dynamics

Local adaptation to rare habitats is difficult due to gene flow, but can occur if the habitat has higher productivity. Differences in offspring phenotypes have attracted little attention in this context. We model a scenario where the rarer habitat improves offspring's later competitive ability – a carryover effect that operates on top of local adaptation to one or the other habitat type. Assuming localised dispersal, so the offspring tend to settle in similar habitat to the natal type, the superior competitive ability of offspring remaining in the rarer habitat hampers immigration from the majority habitat. This initiates a positive feedback between local adaptation and trait divergence, which can thereafter be reinforced by coevolution with dispersal traits that match ecotype to habitat type. Rarity strengthens selection on dispersal traits and promotes linkage disequilibrium between locally adapted traits and ecotype‐habitat matching dispersal. We propose that carryover effects may initiate isolation by ecology.     

EFFECTS OF MATERNAL AND PATERNAL ENVIRONMENT AND GENOTYPE ON OFFSPRING PHENOTYPE IN SOLIDAGO ALTISSIMA L.

To predict the possible evolutionary response of a plant species to a new environment, it is necessary to separate genetic from environmental sources of phenotypic variation. In a case study of the invader Solidago altissima, the influences of several kinds of parental effects and of direct inheritance and environment on offspring phenotype were separated. Fifteen genotypes were crossed in three 5 × 5 diallels excluding selfs. Clonal replicates of the parental genotypes were grown in two environments such that each diallel could be made with maternal/paternal plants from sand/sand, sand/soil, soil/sand, and soil/soil. In a first experiment (1989) offspring were raised in the experimental garden and in a second experiment (1990) in the glasshouse. Parent plants growing in sand invested less biomass in inflorescences but produced larger seeds than parent plants growing in soil. In the garden experiment, phenotypic variation among offspring was greatly influenced by environmental heterogeneity. Direct genetic variation (within diallels) was found only for leaf characters and total leaf mass. Germination probability and early seedling mass were significantly affected by phenotypic differences among maternal plants because of genotype ( genetic maternal effects ) and soil environment ( general environmental maternal effects ). Seeds from maternal plants in sand germinated better and produced bigger seedlings than seeds from maternal plants in soil. They also grew taller with time, probably because competition accentuated the initial differences. Height growth and stem mass at harvest (an integrated account of individual growth history) of offspring varied significantly among crosses within parental combinations ( specific environmental maternal effects ). In the glasshouse experiment, the influence of environmental heterogeneity and competition could be kept low. Except for early characters, the influence of direct genetic variation was large but again leaf characters (= basic module morphology) seemed to be under stricter genetic control than did size characters. Genetic maternal effects, general environmental maternal effects, and specific environmental maternal effects dominated in early characters. The maternal effects were exerted both via seed mass and directly on characters of young offspring. Persistent effects of the general paternal environment ( general environmental paternal effects ) were found for leaf length and stem and leaf mass at harvest. They were opposite in direction to the general environmental maternal effects, that is the same genotypes produced “better mothers” in sand but “better fathers” in soil. The general environmental paternal effects must have been due to differences in pollen quality, resulting from pollen selection within the male parent or leading to pre- or postzygotic selection within the female parent. The ranking of crosses according to mean offspring phenotypes was different in the two experiments, suggesting strong interaction of the observed effects with the environment. The correlation structure among characters changed less between experiments than did the pattern of variation of single characters, but under the competitive conditions in the garden plant height seemed to be more directly related to fitness than in the glasshouse. Reduced competition could also explain why maternal effects were less persistent in the glasshouse than in the garden experiment. Evolution via selection of maternal effects would be possible in the study population because these effects are in part due to genetic differences among parents.     

Evolutionary genetics of maternal effects

Maternal genetic effects (MGEs), where genes expressed by mothers affect the phenotype of their offspring, are important sources of phenotypic diversity in a myriad of organisms. We use a single‐locus model to examine how MGEs contribute patterns of heritable and nonheritable variation and influence evolutionary dynamics in randomly mating and inbreeding populations. We elucidate the influence of MGEs by examining the offspring genotype‐phenotype relationship, which determines how MGEs affect evolutionary dynamics in response to selection on offspring phenotypes. This approach reveals important results that are not apparent from classic quantitative genetic treatments of MGEs. We show that additive and dominance MGEs make different contributions to evolutionary dynamics and patterns of variation, which are differentially affected by inbreeding. Dominance MGEs make the offspring genotype‐phenotype relationship frequency dependent, resulting in the appearance of negative frequency‐dependent selection, while additive MGEs contribute a component of parent‐of‐origin dependent variation. Inbreeding amplifies the contribution of MGEs to the additive genetic variance and, therefore enhances their evolutionary response. Considering evolutionary dynamics of allele frequency change on an adaptive landscape, we show that this landscape differs from the mean fitness surface, and therefore, under some condition, fitness peaks can exist but not be “available” to the evolving population.     

克隆和有性亲体效应及其调控机制

植物表型受自身基因型、所处环境及其亲体所经历环境的共同影响;其中,亲体环境对子代表型的影响被称为亲体效应。亲体效应不仅可通过有性繁殖产生的种子传递给后代(即有性亲体效应),也可以通过克隆生长等无性繁殖产生的分株传递给后代(即克隆亲体效应)。亲体效应对植物种群,特别是对有性繁殖受限、缺乏遗传变异的克隆植物种群的长期进化可能发挥着极其重要的作用,因此,对亲体效应研究进展的梳理非常必要。对克隆亲体效应和有性亲体效应的内涵进行了阐释,并论述了克隆和有性亲体效应对子代表型、适合度、种内/种间竞争能力以及种群/群落结构和功能的潜在影响;阐述了亲体效应的潜在调控机制,包括供给机制、代谢物质调控机制、表观遗传机制等;论述了克隆亲体效应在克隆植物适应进化中的作用。未来可以就克隆亲体效应的遗传稳定性及其对克隆生活史性状变异的贡献程度,以及克隆和有性亲体效应引起的表型多样性对种内/种间关系、种群/群落多样性及生态系统结构、功能和稳定性的影响开展深入研究。     

Local population success in heterogeneous habitats: reciprocal transplant experiments completed on a desert spider

Reciprocal transplant experiments were completed to test for selection against the mixing of behavioural phenotypes in a desert spider. Most Agelenopsis aperta populations experience low prey abundances and competition for web‐sites that provide shelter from thermal extremes. These conditions favour aggressiveness towards both prey and conspecifics (an ‘arid‐land behavioural phenotype’). The spider also occupies narrow stretches of riparian habitat bordering spring‐fed streams and rivers. Here it is released from competition for prey and foraging sites, but is subject to predation by birds. A less aggressive/more fearful behaviour is selected for in these riparian habitats (a ‘riparian behavioural phenotype’). Previous work with this spider indicates that there is genetic differentiation between arid‐land and riparian populations. However, the degree to which genetic differentiation is achieved may be limited by gene flow. Reciprocal sets of enclosures were established in: (1) a dry evergreen woodland site (arid‐land phenotype) and (2) a neighbouring riparian site (riparian phenotype) in south‐eastern Arizona. Equal numbers of field collected, early instar A. aperta were introduced into native and transplant enclosures in each habitat. After 6 months of site‐imposed selection, survivorship was determined and growth estimates and behavioural trials completed on spiders remaining in the different enclosures. The same behavioural test was subsequently applied to lab‐reared offspring of the spiders surviving the respective selection regimes. Riparian transplants showed both poor survival and retarded growth in the dry woodland habitat when compared with both arid‐land and riparian natives. Arid‐land transplants that survived, however, grew equally well in riparian habitat as did dry woodland and riparian natives. Behavioural assays conducted on test subjects after selection and on their offspring reared in a controlled laboratory environment indicate that phenotypes that were inappropriate to the respective habitats were selected against in the transplant experiments. The frequency distribution of transplant spider behaviour on a continuum from fearful to aggressive was intermediate between that exhibited by respective native riparian and dry woodland spiders. It is concluded that while arid‐land and riparian behavioural ecotypes do exist, directional gene flow of arid‐land phenotypes into riparian habitat limits population subdivision.     

How should parents adjust the size of their young in response to local environmental cues?

Models of parental investment typically assume that populations are well mixed and homogeneous and have devoted little attention to the impact of spatial variation in the local environment. Here, in a patch‐structured model with limited dispersal, we assess to what extent resource‐rich and resource‐poor mothers should alter the size of their young in response to the local environment in their patch. We show that limited dispersal leads to a correlation between maternal and offspring environments, which favours plastic adjustment of offspring size in response to local survival risk. Strikingly, however, resource‐poor mothers are predicted to respond more strongly to local survival risk, whereas resource‐rich mothers are predicted to respond less strongly. This lack of sensitivity on the part of resource‐rich mothers is favoured because they accrue much of their fitness through dispersing young. By contrast, resource‐poor mothers accrue a larger fraction of their fitness through philopatric young and should therefore respond more strongly to local risk. Mothers with more resources gain a larger share of their fitness through dispersing young partly because their fitness in the local patch is constrained by the limited number of local breeding spots. In addition, when resource variation occurs at the patch level, the philopatric offspring of resource‐rich mothers face stronger competition from the offspring of other local mothers, who also enjoy abundant resources. The effect of limited local breeding opportunities becomes less pronounced as patch size increases, but the impact of patch‐level variation in resources holds up even with many breeders per patch.     

Parental and developmental temperature effects on the thermal dependence of fitness in Drosophila melanogaster

Cross-generational effects refer to nongenetic influences of the parental phenotype or environment on offspring phenotypes. Such effects are commonly observed, but their adaptive significance is largely unresolved. We examined cross-generational effects of parental temperature on offspring fitness (estimated via a serial-transfer assay) at different temperatures in a laboratory population of Drosophila melanogaster. Parents were reared at 18 degrees C, 25 degrees C, or 29 degrees C (Tpar) and then their offspring were reared at 18 degrees C, 25 degrees C, or 29 degrees C (Toff) to evaluate several competing hypotheses (including an adaptive one) involving interaction effects of parental and offspring temperature on offspring fitness. The results clearly show that hotter parents are better; in other words, the higher the temperature of the parents, the higher the fitness of their offspring, independent of offspring thermal environment. These data contradict the adaptive cross-generational hypothesis, which proposes that offspring fitness is maximal when the offspring thermal regime matches the parental one. Flies with hot parents have high fitness seemingly because their own offspring develop relatively quickly, not because they have higher fecundity early in life.     

Weak evidence for anticipatory parental effects in plants and animals

The evolution of adaptive phenotypic plasticity relies on the presence of cues that enable organisms to adjust their phenotype to match local conditions. Although mostly studied with respect to nonsocial cues, it is also possible that parents transmit information about the environment to their offspring. Such ‘anticipatory parental effects’ or ‘adaptive transgenerational plasticity’ can have important consequences for the dynamics and adaptive potential of populations in heterogeneous environments. Yet, it remains unknown how widespread this form of plasticity is. Using a meta‐analysis of experimental studies with a fully factorial design, we show that there is only weak evidence for higher offspring performance when parental and offspring environments are matched compared with when they are mismatched. Estimates of heterogeneity among studies suggest that effects, when they occur, are subtle. Study features, environmental context, life stage and trait categories all failed to explain significant amounts of variation in effect sizes. We discuss theoretical and methodological reasons for the limited evidence for anticipatory parental effects and suggest ways to improve our understanding of the prevalence of this form of plasticity in nature.     

Environmental and not maternal effects determine variation in offspring phenotypes in a passerine bird

Maternal and environmental effects can profoundly influence offspring phenotypes, independent of genetic effects. Within avian broods, both the asymmetric post‐hatching environment created by hatching asynchrony and the differential maternal investment through the laying sequence have important consequences for individual nestlings in terms of the allocation of resources to body structures with different contributions to fitness. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relative importance of post‐hatching environmental and maternal effects in generating variation in offspring phenotypes. First, an observational study showed that within blue tit, Cyanistes caeruleus, broods, late‐hatched nestlings allocated resources to tarsus development, maintained mass gain and head‐bill growth and directed resources away from the development of fourth primary feathers. Second, a hatching order manipulation experiment resulted in nestlings from first‐laid eggs hatching last, thereby allowing comparison with both late and early‐hatched nestlings. Experimental nestlings had growth patterns which were closer to late‐hatched nestlings, suggesting that within‐brood growth patterns are determined by post‐hatching environmental effects. Therefore, we conclude that post‐hatching environmental effects play an important role in generating variation in offspring phenotypes.     

Personality‐related differences in response to habitat in Mediterranean blue tits

Habitat‐specific selection pressures have been widely recognized, but whether selection favours different personality types in different habitats has rarely been evaluated. This study aimed to test whether personality‐related differences in annual reproductive success differed between two populations of blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) occupying different Mediterranean habitats (oakwood and pinewood). We measured exploration and parental provisioning behaviours and used a path analysis to ask how the interplay between these two behavioural traits affected reproductive success in each of these two habitats. We found that blue tits breeding in the pinewood were slow‐exploring compared to blue tits breeding in the oakwood, suggesting the occurrence of personality‐related differences in settlement, or behavioural plasticity in response to habitat. Exploration behaviour and feeding rates were positively associated, suggesting that they affect each other or that there is an environmental factor affecting both traits simultaneously. Finally, fast explorers were favoured in the pinewood, while there was no selection acting on exploration behaviour in the oak habitat. These findings emphasize the importance of integrating habitat selection, plasticity and personality in the study of behavioural evolution.     

Heterozygosity at a single locus explains a large proportion of variation in two fitness‐related traits in great tits: a general or a local effect?

In natural populations, mating between relatives can have important fitness consequences due to the negative effects of reduced heterozygosity. Parental level of inbreeding or heterozygosity has been also found to influence the performance of offspring, via direct and indirect parental effects that are independent of the progeny own level of genetic diversity. In this study, we first analysed the effects of parental heterozygosity and relatedness (i.e. an estimate of offspring genetic diversity) on four traits related to offspring viability in great tits (Parus major) using 15 microsatellite markers. Second, we tested whether significant heterozygosity–fitness correlations (HFCs) were due to ‘local’ (i.e. linkage to genes influencing fitness) and/or ‘general’ (genome‐wide heterozygosity) effects. We found a significant negative relationship between parental genetic relatedness and hatching success, and maternal heterozygosity was positively associated with offspring body size. The characteristics of the studied populations (recent admixture, polygynous matings) together with the fact that we found evidence for identity disequilibrium across our set of neutral markers suggest that HFCs may have resulted from genome‐wide inbreeding depression. However, one locus (Ase18) had disproportionately large effects on the observed HFCs: heterozygosity at this locus had significant positive effects on hatching success and offspring size. It suggests that this marker may lie near to a functional locus under selection (i.e. a local effect) or, alternatively, heterozygosity at this locus might be correlated to heterozygosity across the genome due to the extensive ID found in our populations (i.e. a general effect). Collectively, our results lend support to both the general and local effect hypotheses and reinforce the view that HFCs lie on a continuum from inbreeding depression to those strictly due to linkage between marker loci and genes under selection.     

On the assignment of fitness to parents and offspring: whose fitness is it and when does it matter?

There has been a long‐standing conceptual debate over the legitimacy of assigning components of offspring fitness to parents for purposes of evolutionary analysis. The benefits and risks inherent in assigning fitness of offspring to parents have been given primarily as verbal arguments and no explicit theoretical analyses have examined quantitatively how the assignment of fitness can affect evolutionary inferences. Using a simple quantitative genetic model, we contrast the conclusions drawn about how selection acts on a maternal character when components of offspring fitness (such as early survival) are assigned to parents vs. when they are assigned directly to the individual offspring. We find that there are potential shortcomings of both possible assignments of fitness. In general, whenever there is a genetic correlation between the parental and direct effects on offspring fitness, assigning components of offspring fitness to parents yields incorrect dynamical equations and may even lead to incorrect conclusions about the direction of evolution. Assignment of offspring fitness to parents may also produce incorrect estimates of selection whenever environmental variation contributes to variance of the maternal trait. Whereas assignment of offspring fitness to the offspring avoids these potential problems, it introduces the possible problem of missing components of kin selection provided by the mother, which may not be detected in selection analyses. There are also certain conditions where either model can be appropriate because assignment of offspring fitness to parents may yield the same dynamical equations as assigning offspring fitness directly to offspring. We discuss these implications of the alternative assignments of fitness for modelling, selection analysis and experimentation in evolutionary biology.     

Benefits of parental care: Do juvenile lizards obtain better‐quality habitat by remaining with their parents?

Abstract Evolutionary theory suggests that parental care is favoured by natural selection when the benefits to offspring fitness outweigh the costs of parental expenditure. The nature of such benefits may differ among species, however, especially in species reflecting independent evolutionary origins of parental care. Black rock skinks (Egernia saxatilis, Scincidae) of south‐eastern Australia are viviparous rock‐dwelling lizards with prolonged parent–offspring association; adult pairs vigorously defend their home range – and, when present, their offspring – against conspecifics. We addressed the hypothesis that, by remaining within their parents' (vigorously defended) home range, juveniles thereby obtain access to better‐quality habitats. Measurements of biologically significant variables (crevice size, sun exposure, vegetation cover) revealed little difference between shelter‐rocks used by solitary (‘orphan’) juveniles and those within family groups containing adults. Indeed, the only consistent differences involved larger (and therefore, less predator‐proof) crevices for juveniles within family groups than for solitary conspecifics. Our data thus falsify the hypothesis that parental care evolves because of benefits associated with habitat quality; instead, it appears that parental protection of juveniles against infanticidal conspecifics may be the most plausible benefit to parent–offspring association in this system.