A limited LCA of bio-adipic acid: manufacturing the nylon-6,6 precursor adipic acid using the benzoic acid degradation pathway from different feedstocks

A limited life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed on a combined biological and chemical process for the production of adipic acid, which was compared to the traditional petrochemical process. The LCA comprises the biological conversion of the aromatic feedstocks benzoic acid, impure aromatics, toluene, or phenol from lignin to cis, cis-muconic acid, which is subsequently converted to adipic acid through hydrogenation. Apart from the impact of usage of petrochemical and biomass-based feedstocks, the environmental impact of the final concentration of cis, cis-muconic acid in the fermentation broth was studied using 1.85% and 4.26% cis, cis-muconic acid. The LCA focused on the cumulative energy demand (CED), cumulative exergy demand (CExD), and the CO(2) equivalent (CO(2) eq) emission, with CO(2) and N(2) O measured separately. The highest calculated reduction potential of CED and CExD were achieved using phenol, which reduced the CED by 29% and 57% with 1.85% and 4.26% cis, cis-muconic acid, respectively. A decrease in the CO(2) eq emission was especially achieved when the N(2) O emission in the combined biological and chemical process was restricted. At 4.26% cis, cis-muconic acid, the different carbon backbone feedstocks contributed to an optimized reduction of CO(2) eq emissions ranging from 14.0 to 17.4 ton CO(2) eq/ton adipic acid. The bulk of the bioprocessing energy intensity is attributed to the hydrogenation reactor, which has a high environmental impact and a direct relationship with the product concentration in the broth.     

Economic and environmental assessment of automotive plastic waste end-of-life options: Energy recovery versus chemical recycling

Most automotive plastic waste (APW) is landfilled or used in energy recovery as it is unsuitable for high-quality product mechanical recycling. Chemical recycling via pyrolysis offers a pathway toward closing the material loop by handling this heterogeneous waste and providing feedstock for producing virgin plastics. This study compares chemical recycling and energy recovery scenarios for APW regarding climate change impact and cumulative energy demand (CED), assessing potential environmental advantages. In addition, an economic assessment is conducted. In contrast to other studies, the assessments are based on pyrolysis experiments conducted with an actual waste fraction. Mass balances and product composition are reported. The experimental data is combined with literature data for up- and downstream processes for the assessment. Chemical recycling shows a lower net climate change impact (0.57 to 0.64 kg CO₂e/kg waste input) and CED (3.38 to 4.41 MJ/kg waste input) than energy recovery (climate change impact: 1.17 to 1.25 kg CO₂e/kg waste input; CED: 6.94 to 7.97 MJ/kg waste input), while energy recovery performs better economically (net processing cost of −0.05 to −0.02€/kg waste input) compared to chemical recycling (0.05 to 0.08€/kg waste input). However, chemical recycling keeps carbon in the material cycle contributing to a circular economy and reducing the dependence on fossil feedstocks. Therefore, an increasing circularity of APW through chemical recycling shows a conflict between economic and environmental objectives.     

Cradle-to-gate study of red clay for use in the ceramic industry

Background, Goal and Scope  The ceramic tile industry is one of the most important industries in Spain, with the highest concentration of firms to be found in the province of Castellón on the Mediterranean coast. The basic input material for this industry is red clay. The aim of this study was to carry out an LCA of the process of mining, treating and marketing this clay in order to identify the stages and unit processes that have the greatest impact on the environment. This LCA examines all the stages of the red clay from cradle to the customer’s gate, including the process of mining and treating the clay in the mining facilities and its later distribution to end users. Methods  Life cycle inventory (LCI): An exhaustive LCI was performed by collecting data from the mine run by Watts Blake Bearne Spain, S.A. (WBB-Spain) in Castellón. Inputs and outputs were collected for all the unit processes involved in the mining, treatment and marketing of the clay:

Inventory analysis of the timber industry in Ghana

Background, aim, and scope  

The timber sector, i.e., forestry and timber industry, plays an important role in the socioeconomic development of Ghana through timber products export. Timber production in this sector is associated with increasing environmental burdens in terms of use of materials and energy, production of emissions and waste, and land use changes. The purpose of this study was to compile a comprehensive life cycle inventory (LCI) to identify the most dominant environmental pressures for five major production lines in the timber industry, and to evaluate the influence of the choice of the functional unit on the results (1 m³, 1 kg, and 1 euro). LCA’s of wood typically base their functional unit on volume, but mass or money may be more appropriate for the rather different products considered in this study.     

Provision of LCI data in the European aluminium industry Methods and examples

Background, aim, and scope

The development of robust and up-to-date generic life cycle inventory data for materials is absolutely crucial for the LCA community since many LCA studies rely on these generic data about materials. LCA databases and software usually include within their package such generic LCI datasets. However, in many cases, the quality of these data is poor while the methodology and the models used for their development are rarely accessible or transparent. This paper presents the development of robust European LCI datasets for the production of primary and recycled aluminium ingots and for the transformation of aluminium ingot into semi-finished products, i.e. sheet, foil and extrusion.

Materials and methods

The environmental data have been collected through an extensive environmental survey, organised among the European aluminium industry, focusing on the year 2005 and covering EU27 countries as well as EFTA countries (Norway, Iceland and Switzerland). From this survey, European averages, i.e. foreground data, have been calculated for the direct inputs and outputs of the various aluminium processes. Using the GaBi software, the foreground data have been combined within LCI models integrating background LCI data on energy supply systems, ancillary processes and materials. For the primary aluminium production (smelters), a specific model for the electricity production has been developed. The methodology for the data consolidation and for the development of the various models is explained as well as the main differences between the new modelling approach and LCI models used in the past. An independent expert has critically reviewed the entire LCI project including data collection, models development, calculation of LCI data and associated environmental indicators.

Results

As confirmed by the critical review, the new LCI datasets for aluminium ingot production and transformation into semi-finished products have been developed though a robust methodology in full accordance with ISO 14040 and 14044. Most significant environmental data and LCI results are reported in this paper with an emphasis on energy use and the major emissions to air. The full environmental report, including the critical review report and the calculation of environmental indicators for a pre-set of impact categories, is available on the website of the European Aluminium Association (EAA 2008). Whenever possible, the updated European averages and the new LCI data are compared with previous results developed from two past European surveys covering respectively the years 2002 and 1998. For the aluminium processes related to primary production, European averages are also benchmarked against global averages calculated from two worldwide surveys covering the years 2000 and 2005.

Discussion

While some data evolutions are directly attributed to the variation of foreground data, e.g. raw materials consumption or energy use within the aluminium processes, modifications related to the system boundaries, the background data and the modelling hypotheses can also influence significantly the LCI results. For primary aluminium production, the evolution of the foreground data is dominated by the strong decrease of PFC (perfluorocarbon) emissions (about 70% since 1998). In addition, the electricity structure calculated from the refined electricity model shows significant differences compared to previous models. In the 2005 electricity model, the hydropower share reaches 58% while coal contributes to 15% only of the electricity production. In 1998, the respective share of coal-based and hydro-electricity were respectively calculated to 25% and 52%. As a result, the electricity background LCI data are then significantly affected and influence also positively the environmental profile of primary aluminium in Europe. For the semi-production processes, the reduction of process scrap production, especially for extrusion and foil, demonstrates the increase of process efficiency from 1998. In parallel, a significant reduction of energy use is observed between 1998 and 2005. However, this positive trend is not fully reflected within LCI data due to the significant contribution of the background electricity data. The choice of the electricity model plays also a critical role for these transformation processes since electricity production contributes to about 2/3 of the consumption of the non-renewable energy and to about the same level of the air emissions. In such a case, the move from the UCPTE electricity model used in the past towards the EU25 electricity model used for the development of the updated LCI data has a detrimental effect on the environmental profile of the three LCI datasets respectively related to sheet, foil and extrusion. In addition to energy and process scrap reduction, the reduction of the VOC (volatile organic compounds) emission is also a major trend in foil production. Finally, for old aluminium scrap recycling, the new LCI data show a dramatic improvement regarding energy efficiency, reinforcing the environmental soundness of promoting and supporting aluminium recycling within the aluminium product life cycles.

Conclusions

This paper shows the development of generic LCI data about aluminium production and transformation processes which are based on robust data, methodologies and models in full accordance with ISO 14040 and 14044 standards, as confirmed by the critical review. The publishing of these LCI datasets definitely shows the commitment of the European aluminium industry to contribute in a transparent, fair and scientifically sound manner to product sustainability in a life cycle thinking perspective.

Recommendations and perspectives

Software houses and LCA practitioners are invited to update their generic European data on aluminium with the herewith datasets. Even if the quality and the completeness of these LCI data reach a high standard, some areas for data improvements have been identified, as described within the review report. Land use, water use and solid waste treatment appear as three priority areas for data refining and improvement. The land use dimension, particularly meaningful for bauxite mining, is not covered in the current LCI data while it is now integrated within many LCA studies. Up to now, the reporting of meaningful and robust data on water origins and use have not been possible due to the huge discrepancies between the surveyed sites combined with the difficulty to report coherent input and output water mass flows. The development of water data, only focussing on water-stressed areas, will most probably make more sense in the future. Finally, collecting more qualitative information about solid waste processing and treatment will help to include such operations within the system boundaries and to model their associated air, water and soil emissions.

     

Methodology for developing gate-to-gate Life cycle inventory information

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology evaluates holistically the environmental consequences of a product system or activity, by quantifying the energy and materials used, the wastes released to the environment, and assessing the environmental impacts of those energy, materials and wastes. Despite the international focus on environmental impact and LCA, the quality of the underlying life cycle inventory data is at least as, if not more, important than the more qualitative LCA process. This work presents an option to generate gate-to-gate life cycle information of chemical substances, based on a transparent methodology of chemical engineering process design (an ab initio approach). In the broader concept of a Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), the information of each gate-to-gate module can be linked accordingly in a production chain, including the extraction of raw materials, transportation, disposal, reuse, etc. to provide a full cradle to gate evaluation. The goal of this article is to explain the methodology rather than to provide a tutorial on the techniques used. This methodology aims to help the LCA practitioner to obtain a fair and transparent estimate of LCI data when the information is not readily available from industry or literature. Results of gate-to-gate life cycle information generated using the cited methodology are presented as a case study. It has been our experience that both LCI and LCA information provide valuable means of understanding the net environmental consequence of any technology. The LCI information from this methodology can be used more directly in exploring engineering and chemistry changes to improve manufacturing processes. The LCA information can be used to set broader policy and to look at more macro improvements for the environment.     

Post-consumer waste wood in attributive product LCA

Background  

In product life cycle assessment (LCA), the attribution of environmental interventions to a product under study is an ambiguous task. This is due to a) the simplistic modeling characteristics in the life cycle inventory step (LCI) of LCA in view of the complexity of our techno-economic system, and b) to the nontangible theoretical nature of the product system as a representation of the processes ‘causally’ linked to a product. Ambiguous methodological decisions during the setup of an LCI include the modeling of end-of-life scenarios or the choice of an allocation factor for the allocation of joint co-production processes. An important criterion for methodological decisions — besides the conformity with the relevant series of standards ISO 14 040 — is if the improvement options, which can be deduced from the LCI, are perceived by the decision-maker as to redirect the material flows at stake into more sustainable paths.     

A spatially explicit life cycle inventory of the global textile chain

Background, aim, and scope  Life cycle analyses (LCA) approaches require adaptation to reflect the increasing delocalization of production to emerging countries. This work addresses this challenge by establishing a country-level, spatially explicit life cycle inventory (LCI). This study comprises three separate dimensions. The first dimension is spatial: processes and emissions are allocated to the country in which they take place and modeled to take into account local factors. Emerging economies China and India are the location of production, the consumption occurs in Germany, an Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development country. The second dimension is the product level: we consider two distinct textile garments, a cotton T-shirt and a polyester jacket, in order to highlight potential differences in the production and use phases. The third dimension is the inventory composition: we track CO₂, SO₂, NO _x , and particulates, four major atmospheric pollutants, as well as energy use. This third dimension enriches the analysis of the spatial differentiation (first dimension) and distinct products (second dimension). Materials and methods  We describe the textile production and use processes and define a functional unit for a garment. We then model important processes using a hierarchy of preferential data sources. We place special emphasis on the modeling of the principal local energy processes: electricity and transport in emerging countries. Results  The spatially explicit inventory is disaggregated by country of location of the emissions and analyzed according to the dimensions of the study: location, product, and pollutant. The inventory shows striking differences between the two products considered as well as between the different pollutants considered. For the T-shirt, over 70% of the energy use and CO₂ emissions occur in the consuming country, whereas for the jacket, more than 70% occur in the producing country. This reversal of proportions is due to differences in the use phase of the garments. For SO₂, in contrast, over two thirds of the emissions occur in the country of production for both T-shirt and jacket. The difference in emission patterns between CO₂ and SO₂ is due to local electricity processes, justifying our emphasis on local energy infrastructure. Discussion  The complexity of considering differences in location, product, and pollutant is rewarded by a much richer understanding of a global production–consumption chain. The inclusion of two different products in the LCI highlights the importance of the definition of a product's functional unit in the analysis and implications of results. Several use-phase scenarios demonstrate the importance of consumer behavior over equipment efficiency. The spatial emission patterns of the different pollutants allow us to understand the role of various energy infrastructure elements. The emission patterns furthermore inform the debate on the Environmental Kuznets Curve, which applies only to pollutants which can be easily filtered and does not take into account the effects of production displacement. We also discuss the appropriateness and limitations of applying the LCA methodology in a global context, especially in developing countries. Conclusions  Our spatial LCI method yields important insights in the quantity and pattern of emissions due to different product life cycle stages, dependent on the local technology, emphasizing the importance of consumer behavior. From a life cycle perspective, consumer education promoting air-drying and cool washing is more important than efficient appliances. Recommendations and perspectives  Spatial LCI with country-specific data is a promising method, necessary for the challenges of globalized production–consumption chains. We recommend inventory reporting of final energy forms, such as electricity, and modular LCA databases, which would allow the easy modification of underlying energy infrastructure. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Life cycle inventory analysis of granite production from cradle to gate

Purpose

Granite is a traditional high-quality material that is widely used in construction. A key strategy that is increasingly promoted to highlight the competitiveness of materials is life cycle environmental performance. Due to the lack of comprehensive life cycle inventories (LCIs), the environmental characterisation of granite products has received little attention in scientific literature. In this paper, a complete LCI of the production chain of intermediate and finished granite products is provided and analysed.

Methods

The Spanish granite production industry, which is the second major European producer and the seventh worldwide, is examined. The reference unit is defined as 1 m² of finished granite tiles with dimensions 60?×?40?×?2 cm used for indoor and outdoor applications. Input and output data were collected through the distribution of technical data collection surveys to quarries and processing facilities and via on-site visits. During data calculation and validation, technical support was provided by technicians from the Spanish Cluster of Granite Producers. The LCI data describe the industrial activity in baseline year 2010 that corresponds to a total production volume of 48,052 m³ of quarried granite and a net of 881,406 m² of processed granite.

Results and discussion

The production of 1 m² of polished granite tiles requires 28 kWh of electricity, 23 MJ of diesel, 103 l of water, and 7 kg of ancillary materials. Sandblasted, flamed or bush-hammered finishes applied to granite tiles have a minimal effect on their total energy and material requirements but significantly affect their water consumption. Electrical energy, cooling water and steel are the major industrial requirements in which granite sawing is the most demanding process. The resource efficiency of the production chain is 0.31. Approximately 117 kg of granite are wasted per square meter of granite tiles that are produced (53 kg). Seventy-four percent of granite waste is composed of granite scrap, which becomes a marketable by-product. The predominant source of granite waste is the sawdust that is generated during stone-cutting operations.

Conclusions

LCIs provide the relevant information required to characterise the environmental performance of granite production and products. LCI data can be easily managed by users due to the disaggregation into unit processes. LCI data can be used to analyse the environmental burden associated with intermediary granite products, such as granite blocks, sawn granite slabs and finished granite slabs, and to analyse the environmental burden of finished granite tiles according to the corresponding net production volumes.

Recommendations

LCI dataset of granite production should be extended to include alternative production technologies, such as diamond multiwire machines for sawing granite, which is an increasingly competitive production technology with interesting properties for cleaner production. Strong competitive granite industries, such as the industries in China, India and Brazil, should also provide LCIs of granite products to transparently compare different product chains, identify environmental strategies on the sector level, and promote the green procurement of granite products.     

Accounting for water use in Australian red meat production

Background and theory  

Life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle inventory (LCI) practice needs to engage with the debate on water use in agriculture and industry. In the case of the red meat sector, some of the methodologies proposed or in use cannot easily inform the debate because either the results are not denominated in units that are meaningful to the public or the results do not reflect environmental outcomes. This study aims to solve these problems by classifying water use LCI data in the Australian red meat sector in a manner consistent with contemporary definitions of sustainability. We intend to quantify water that is removed from the course it would take in the absence of production or degraded in quality by the production system.     

A novel perspective to bitumen refineries life cycle assessment and processes emissions

This study provides an introduction and a novel view of the impacts of oil refineries industry on human health, ecosystem quality and resources. The scope and issues for dealing with these challenges are rather wide and complex because the Oil refineries are complex facilities. Several processes, such as distillation, vacuum distillation, or steam reforming are required to produce a large variety of oil products such as gasoline, light fuel oil or bitumen. The goals, perspectives and expectation for the environmental practice and control have changed dramatically over the last couple of decades. Hence the required approach has to be multidisciplinary, based on established scientific concepts and sound engineering principles. The environmental impacts of oil refineries are assessed using the technique of life cycle assessment (LCA). In this paper, only the material production phase of the bitumen LCA is considered. To improve the quality of the LCA, a regionalized life cycle inventory (LCI) database for the Oil refineries and commercial LCI databases are used to validate and model unit processes with an LCA software.     

Application of LCI: Environmental profile of LAB and detergent alcohols

LAB (Linear Alkyl Benzene) and long chain linear alcohols are the intermediates for the production of the most important surfactants used in the field of the world detergents. In the last two decades, as a consequence of the oil crisis and of the increasing environmental issues, technological development has been targeting the reduction of resources consumption and emissions related to these production activities. The results of the application of the principles of Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) to the production paths of Oxo-alcohols and LAB from kerosene are shown here, taking into account the improvements made within our production technologies. The case studies detailed in this study show the most relevant achievements, regarding our processes, in terms of environmental quality and demonstrate that the correct application of LCI methodology is decisive to obtain considerable advantages, as far as the environmental quality of our products is concerned.     

Cradle-to-gate assessment of environmental impacts for a broad set of biomass-to-product process chains

Purpose

This study advocates a modular approach combining unit processes as building blocks to formulate biomass process chains. This approach facilitates a transparent environmental life cycle impact assessment for bio-based products. It also enhances the ability to develop and assess more complex biorefinery systems, identifies critical parameters and offers useful material to support environmental impact assessment in early design stages.

Methods

Twenty-three different products were assessed with regard to the environmental burden associated with their production paths. Life cycle inventories (LCIs) for 32 unit processes were compiled (using information from pilot plants, simulation and literature data) and organized in biomass process chains. Then, 58 study systems were formed based on various combinations of the unit processes, each study system referring to the production of a selected product. Three indicators were used for quantification of the impacts: non-renewable fossil cumulative energy demand (CED), global warming potential (GWP) and water depletion as defined in the ReCiPe method.

Results and discussion

Factors influencing the variation of results even for similar products are discussed (e.g. production path and allocation method lead to a range of GWP values for ethylene production from 0.43 to 3.37 kg CO₂ eq/kg ethylene). For the majority of bio-products, CED has lower values than fossil-based equivalents (average difference 39–70 MJ eq/kg product depending on the allocation method), while mixed trends are obtained for the GWP and water depletion indicators. Assessments also highlight attributes that have a significant effect in the environmental profile of a production path such as the synthesis path, the process chemistry (water intensity) and process-related factors (energy intensity, degree of energy integration/heat recovery).

Conclusions

The analysis of impacts per unit process is able to demonstrate the particular production stages featuring high environmental intensities along a path further hinting to suggestions for amendments and improvements from an overall performance perspective. The study makes a useful source for biorefinery design studies especially in adopting a modular approach to represent and to analyse biomass process chains; it also provides a reference point for comparison (benchmarking) between different process technologies for biomass utilization. Finally, the analysis is compatible with the standards of the LCA methodology, and it is based on the use of the most common LCA databases, which facilitates the comparison of the results with other relevant studies.

     

Mapping the Influence of Food Waste in Food Packaging Environmental Performance Assessments

Scrutiny of food packaging environmental impacts has led to a variety of sustainability directives, but has largely focused on the direct impacts of materials. A growing awareness of the impacts of food waste warrants a recalibration of packaging environmental assessment to include the indirect effects due to influences on food waste. In this study, we model 13 food products and their typical packaging formats through a consistent life cycle assessment framework in order to demonstrate the effect of food waste on overall system greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and cumulative energy demand (CED). Starting with food waste rate estimates from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, we calculate the effect on GHG emissions and CED of a hypothetical 10% decrease in food waste rate. This defines a limit for increases in packaging impacts from innovative packaging solutions that will still lead to net system environmental benefits. The ratio of food production to packaging production environmental impact provides a guide to predicting food waste effects on system performance. Based on a survey of the food LCA literature, this ratio for GHG emissions ranges from 0.06 (wine example) to 780 (beef example). High ratios with foods such as cereals, dairy, seafood, and meats suggest greater opportunity for net impact reductions through packaging‐based food waste reduction innovations. While this study is not intended to provide definitive LCAs for the product/package systems modeled, it does illustrate both the importance of considering food waste when comparing packaging alternatives, and the potential for using packaging to reduce overall system impacts by reducing food waste.     

LCA benchmarking study on textiles made of cotton,polyester, nylon,acryl, or elastane

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to provide an improved (up-to-date) insight into the environmental burden of textiles made of the base materials cotton, polyester (PET), nylon, acryl, and elastane. The research question is: Which base material and which life cycle stage (cradle-to-gate as well as cradle-to-grave) have the biggest impact on the environment?

Methods

Life cycle inventory (LCI) data are collected from the literature, life cycle assessment (LCA) databases, and emission registration database of the Dutch government, as well as communications with both manufacturing companies of production equipment and textile companies. The output of the calculations is presented in four single indicators: Eco-costs 2012 (a prevention-based indicator), CO₂ equivalent (carbon footprint), cumulative energy demand (CED), and ReCiPe (a damage-based indicator).

Results and discussion

From an analysis of the data, it becomes clear that the environmental burden is not only a function of the base materials (cotton, PET, nylon, acryl, and elastane) but also of the thickness of the yarn (for this research, the range of 50–500 dtex is examined). The authors propose that the environmental burden of spinning, weaving, and knitting is a function of 1/yarn size. The cradle-to-grave analysis from raw material extraction to discarded textile demonstrates that textiles made out of acryl and PET have the least impact on the environment, followed by elastane, nylon, and cotton. The use phase has less relative impact than it is suggested in the classical literature.

Conclusions

The impact of spinning and weaving is relatively high (for yarn thicknesses of less than 100 dtex), and from the environmental point of view, knitting is better than weaving. LCA on textiles can only be accurate when the yarn thickness is specified. In case the functional unit also indicates the fabric per square meter, the density must be known. LCA results of textile products over the whole value chain are case dependent, especially when dyeing and finishing processes and the use phase and end-of-life are included in the analysis. Further LCI data studies on textiles and garments are urgently needed to lower the uncertainties in contemporary LCA of textile materials and products.     

Physicochemical modelling of the classical steelmaking route for life cycle inventory analysis

Goal, scope and background  

Integrating environmental issues into the traditional product design process, for powerful eco-efficiency, is now one of the major priorities for steelmakers. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is currently undertaken as the most holistic approach for assessing environmental impact and selecting new technologies to reduce emissions for steel industry. However, in order to identify new ways for environmental friendly production of steel, it is essential to carry out the process Life cycle inventory (LCI) which is the core part of LCA. According to LCA practitioners, the quality and the availability of data are the main important limiting factors when applying this methodology for new steelmaking processes without large industrial application. In this paper, we propose a new approach of LCIA of steelmaking, based on the simulation of traditional processes which guarantees the quality of data, the mass and the energy balances. This approach is validated for an existing integrated plant and will be used to assess the inventory for breakthrough steelmaking technologies.     

Life Cycle assessment of frozen cod fillets including fishery-specific environmental impacts

Goal, Scope and Background  The purpose of the present study was to perform an environmental assessment for the entire life cycle of a seafood product and to include fishery-specific types of environmental impact in inventory and assessment. Environmental data for a frozen block of cod fillets was collected and used for a Life Cycle Assessment, including the fishery-specific environmental aspects seafloor use and biological extraction of target, by-catch and discard species. The fishery takes place in the Baltic Sea where cod is mainly fished by benthic trawls and gillnets. Methods  The functional unit was a consumer package of frozen cod fillets (400 g) reaching the household. Data was gathered from fishermen, fishery statistics, databases, companies and literature. Fishery-specific issues like the impact on stocks of the target and by-catch species, seafloor impact and discarding were quantified in relation to the functional unit and qualitative impact assessment of these aspects was included. Results  Findings include the fact that all environmental impact categories assessed (Global Warming Potential, Eutrophication Potential, Acidification Potential, Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential and Aquatic Ecotoxiciy) are dominated by the fishery. Around 700 m² of seafloor are swept by trawls and around 50 g of under-sized cod and other marine species are discarded per functional unit. The phases contributing most to total environmental impact following fishery were transports and preparation in the household. The process industry and municipal sewage treatment cause considerable amounts of eutrophying emissions. Conclusions  Conclusions are that there are considerable options for improvement of the environmental performance of the seafood production chain. In the fishery, the most important environmental measure is to fish sustainably managed stocks. Speed optimisation, increased use of less energy-intensive fishing gear and improved engine and fuel technology are technical measures that would considerably decrease resource use and environmental impact caused by fishery. Due to the importance of fishery for the overall results, the most important environmental improvement option after landing is to maintain high quality and minimise product losses. Recommendations and Outlook  The need for good baseline data concerning resource use and marine environmental impact of fisheries in order to perform environmental assessment of seafood products was demonstrated. LCA was shown to be a valuable tool for such assessments, which in the future could be used to improve the environmental performance of the seafood production chain or in the development of criteria of eco-label-ling of seafood products originating in capture fisheries.     

Green conversion of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to furan-2,5-dicarboxylic acid by heterogeneous expression of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural oxidase in Pseudomonas putida S12

Transforming petrochemical processes into bioprocesses has become an important goal of sustainable development. The chemical synthesis of 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) from 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is expensive and environmentally unfavourable. The study aims to investigate a whole-cell biocatalyst for efficient biotransformation of HMF to FDCA. For the first time, a genetically engineered Pseudomonas putida S12 strain expressing 5-hydroxymethylfurfural oxidase (HMFO) was developed for the biocatalytic conversion of HMF to FDCA. This whole-cell biocatalyst produced 35.7 mM FDCA from 50 mM HMF in 24 h without notable inhibition. However, when the initial HMF concentration was elevated to 100 mM, remarkable inhibition on FDCA production was observed, resulting in a reduction of FDCA yield to 42%. We solve this substrate inhibition difficulty by increasing the inoculum density. Subsequently, we used a fed-batch strategy by maintaining low HMF concentration in the culture to maximize the final FDCA titre. Using this approach, 545 mM of FDCA was accumulatively produced after 72 hs, which is the highest production rate per unit mass of cells to the best of our knowledge.