The tactile motion aftereffect revisited

In two experiments, we measured the direction, duration, frequency, and vividness of the tactile motion aftereffect (MAE) induced by a rotating drum with a ridged surface. In Experiment 1, we adapted the: (1) fingers and palm, including the thumb, (2) fingers and palm, excluding the thumb, and (3) fingers only, excluding the thumb. In each condition the drum rotated at 60 rpm for 120 s. There was no difference in duration, frequency, or vividness between the skin surfaces tested. In Experiment 2, we tested several adapting speeds: 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 rpm. At each speed the fingers and palm, excluding the thumb, were adapted for 120 s. The duration, frequency, and vividness of the tactile MAE increased linearly with adapting speed. Overall, the tactile MAE was reported on approximately half of the trials, suggesting that it is not as robust as its visual counterpart.     

湿地的国内外研究进展

湿地的国内外研究进展王宪礼李秀珍（中国科学院沈阳应用生态研究所,１１００１５）ＡｄｖａｎｃｅｓｉｎＷｅｔｌａｎｄｓ’Ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｓ．ＷａｎｇＸｉａｎｌｉ,ＬｉＸｉｕｚｈｅｎ（ＩｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｅｏｆＡｐｐｌｉｅｄＥｃｏｌｏｇｙ,ＣｈｉｎｅｓｅＡ...     

The relationship between the frequency of self-stimulation and parameters of the stimulus]

The dependence of self-stimulation frequency on stimulation parameters (current intensity, stimulation frequency, pulse duration, duration of pulse bursts) was studied in fifteen rats with monopolar electrodes implanted in the lateral hypothalamus, using rectangular current pulses for brain stimulation. All the experiments revealed qualitatively similar response surfaces to the combined change of stimulation frequency and pulse duration Self-stimulation frequency is connected in a non-linear way with the "specific charge" per unit of time, and in an approximately linear way, with the duration of the pulse burst. Regression equations are determined which precisely enough described the kind of response surface (R =0.7 to 0.95).     

The movement patterns of lacertid lizards: speed, gait and pauses in Lacerta vivipara

Lacerta vivipara moving across an open space at their normal activity temperature alternate bursts of locomotion with short pauses which tend to occur at the extremes of the limb cycle, i.e. when individual limbs are maximally adducted or retracted and the spinal cord is maximally flexed in the lateral plane. The movement bursts and pauses in adult lizards have mean durations of 0–30 and 012 s, respectively, and within bursts the lizards move at a mean speed of 14–6 cm s^-1. Movement in juvenile lizards is 2–5 times faster (relative to body length) and the pauses are of longer duration (mean = 019 s), giving the locomotion of juveniles a more jerky appearance. Lizards which are chasing crickets increase the speed and the duration of locomo-tory bursts, although the pauses persist. Lizards which are searching for a previously perceived cricket increase pause duration (mean = 0–40 s). Lizards which are fleeing from a sudden disturbance move at almost twice (juveniles) or 3–7 times (adults) the speed of foraging animals: the pauses persist, although at much reduced frequency. Increases in speed result from increases in both stride length (Λ) and stride frequency (n); the ratio Λ/ n appears to remain constant at 006. The significance of these observations is discussed, although the functions of the pauses cannot yet be explained.     

西双版纳热带季节雨林内雾特征研究

 利用4年（1999～2002）的雾观测资料,对西双版纳热带季节雨林内雾特征进行了观测研究。结果表明,雾首先形成于最上林冠层,林下雾是由上层雾变浓、下沉而来。夜间,雾形成前,气温高于叶表温;雾形成后,气温则低于叶表温。热带雨林内各季节雾日数和雾日频率均高于无林地。热带雨林内平均全年雾日数可达258 d,其中雾季和干热季共占154 d（59.6%）,而雾季的雾日频率高达90%。雾日数的季节变化与各季节雨量呈明显的负相关。雾季,雾在23∶00左右生成,比干热季、雨季分别提前0.7、2.3 h,而消散时间则分别推迟0.8、2.2 h。雾生成和消散时间呈现出较明显的负相关。雾季雾的持续时间达12.2 h·d-1,比干热季、雨季分别长1.5、4.6 h·d-1。全年雾总持续时间占全年时间的39.7%,而雾季的相应值为50.8%。雾的形成不仅凝结了水汽进入森林（全年89.4 mm）,同时也对森林起到了一定的保温作用,这对热带雨林的生存和发展具有至关重要的作用。     

基于MATLAB轨迹跟踪研究重金属铜对鲢幼鱼自发游泳行为的影响

鱼类行为的改变可以作为识别突发环境污染的一项敏感指标。为了量化鱼类对重金属污染的行为响应, 通过视频记录及MATLAB软件定量分析了不同浓度急性铜暴露(0、1、2、3、4 mg/L)对幼鱼的呼吸代谢、运动行为及幼鱼组织中铜离子含量。结果表明: 重金属铜离子存在对鲢幼鱼(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)的运动时间比和呼吸频率影响显著(P<0.05), 随着铜离子浓度增大, 鲢幼鱼运动时长下降, 当铜离子浓度为4 mg/L时运动时长最小(t=8min), 比对照组减少了72.41%; 鲢幼鱼5min内的平均运动速度、平均加速度和总运动路程随着铜离子浓度增大而逐渐减小, 最小平均速度为29.50 mm/s, 最小平均正加速度大小为45.18 mm/s2, 最小平均负加速度大小为42.64 mm/s2, 加速的能力强于减速能力; 鲢幼鱼各组织中铜含量的顺序为: 肝脏>鳃>肌肉, 但差异不显著。研究结果可为水质预警和快速评价水体的综合毒性提供基础数据和理论基础。     

COMPARATIVE EVIDENCE FOR THE EVOLUTION OF SPERM SWIMMING SPEED BY SPERM COMPETITION AND FEMALE SPERM STORAGE DURATION IN PASSERINE BIRDS

Sperm swimming speed is an important determinant of male fertility and sperm competitiveness. Despite its fundamental biological importance, the underlying evolutionary processes affecting this male reproductive trait are poorly understood. Using a comparative approach in a phylogenetic framework, we tested the predictions that sperm swim faster with (1) increased risk of sperm competition, (2) shorter duration of female sperm storage, and (3) increased sperm length. We recorded sperm swimming speed in 42 North American and European free-living passerine bird species, representing 35 genera and 16 families. We found that sperm swimming speed was positively related to the frequency of extrapair paternity (a proxy for the risk of sperm competition) and negatively associated with clutch size (a proxy for the duration of female sperm storage). Sperm swimming speed was unrelated to sperm length, although sperm length also increased with the frequency of extrapair paternity. These results suggest that sperm swimming speed and sperm length are not closely associated traits and evolve independently in response to sperm competition in passerine birds. Our findings emphasize the significance of both sperm competition and female sperm storage duration as evolutionary forces driving sperm swimming speed.     

藏北牧区地表湿润状况对气候变化的响应

利用1961～2006年藏北牧区6个站月平均最高气温、最低气温、降水量、风速、相对湿度、日照时数资料,应用Penman-Monteith模型计算得出潜在蒸散,分析了地表湿润指数的变化趋势、年代际变化特征及季节差异,并讨论了影响地表湿润指数的气象因子.研究表明:近46a藏北牧区年地表湿润指数呈现增大趋势,增幅0.01～0.05/10a;四季地表湿润指数大部分牧区也呈增大趋势,春、秋季增幅明显.近26a(1981～2006年)、季潜在蒸散表现为明显的减少趋势,降水量显现增多趋势,地表湿润指数增大趋势加大,以夏季最为突出.就年平均而言,藏北牧区20世纪60年代初、中期以高湿低温为其主要气候特征;20世纪60年代后期至80年代中期,表现为冷干型的气候特征;90年代初之后,气温持续升高,地表湿润指数显著增加,呈现以暖湿为主的年代际变化特征.湿润指数对降水量、相对湿度和气温日较差的响应最为敏感,而对日照时数和风速的响应也较为明显.     

The frequency selectivity of information-processing channels in the tactile sensory system

The frequency selectivity of the P, NP I, and NP II channels of the four-channel model of mechanoreception for glabrous skin was measured psychophysically by an adaptation tuning curve procedure. The results substantially extend the frequency range over which the frequency selectivity of these channels is known and further confirm the hypothesis that the input stage of each of these channels consists of specific sensory nerve fibers and associated receptors. Specifically, the frequency characteristics of Pacinian nerve fibers, rapidly adapting (RA) nerve fibers, and slowly adapting Type II (SA II) nerve fibers were found to be the peripheral neurophysiological correlates of the P, NP I, and NP II channels, respectively. The finding that the tuning characteristic for a test stimulus of 250 Hz delivered through a small (0.008 cm2) contactor depended dramatically on the duration of the test stimulus whereas the detection threshold did not, provides new evidence in support of the hypothesis that separate NP II and P channels exist.     

宁夏中部干旱带生态恢复对沙尘暴的降频与减灾潜力分析

利用宁夏1971~2000年常规气象、自记风及同期亚洲环流资料,并结合1990~2000年宁夏八大类土地详查资料,建立了对宁夏中部干旱带春季3~5月份沙尘暴发生频次和平均持续时间拟合效果较好的生态/气候影响分析模型。通过对不同生态背景与气象条件下沙尘暴发生频次及平均持续时间的分类对比分析,基本摸清了产生沙尘暴的气象和生态因子间的量化对应关系。结果证实:在生态环境局部治理、整体退化背景下,20世纪70年代以来,宁夏沙尘暴起暴阈值随年代际显著下降、沙尘暴平均持续时间明显延长,沙尘暴发生机率随年代际显著提高、危害加大。揭示了20世纪80年代中期以来沙尘暴发生频率的降低主要由气候变暖、冷空气活动频次减少造成;但在生态退化显著、沙尘暴高频区宁夏盐池、同心一带,同等动力条件下,沙尘暴平均持续时间的显著延长则主要是由于生态退化所致。即在宁夏中部干旱带,生态环境的恢复与改良,对减少沙尘暴发生频次、尤其是降低沙尘暴平均持续时间及减轻沙尘暴灾害具有显著的生态调控潜力。     

Feeding behavior in freshwater bryozoans: function,form, and flow

Bryozoans are impressively active suspension feeders, with diverse feeding behaviors. These have been studied extensively in marine bryozoans, but less so in their freshwater counterparts. Here we identified 16 distinct behaviors in three phylactolaemate species and classified them into behaviors involving separate tentacles, groups of tentacles, lophophore arms, the introvert, or multiple zooids. We examined (1) the repertoire of behaviors in each species, and each behavior's (2) absolute frequency, (3) relative frequency and (4) duration in each of the three species, at two flow velocities (0 and 0.2 cm s^?1). Nine feeding behaviors were shared by all three species, but the occurrence of other behaviors in a given species was limited by its morphology. Behaviors involved in particle capture were the most frequent, and were often faster than the reactions involved in particle rejection. By contrast, the absolute frequency of behaviors varied widely among species without clear associations with species form, or function of the behavior. Flow velocity had only minor effects on the feeding behaviors exhibited by a species, or their frequencies or durations. Our results show that phylactolaemates have the same key feeding behaviors of the individual polypides (especially involving separate tentacles) as previously described in gymnolaemate and stenolaemate bryozoans, although their behaviors tend to be carried out more slowly than those of stenolaemates or gymnolaemates. Feeding behaviors involving multiple zooids were nearly absent in the studied phylactolaemates, but are common in gymnolaemates. Freshwater bryozoans appear to be intermediate between stenolaemate and gymnolaemate bryozoans in terms of richness of the repertoire of feeding behaviors.     

Temporal changes in effectiveness of an inspiratory inhibitory electrical pontine stimulus

We determined the temporal changes in effectiveness of inspiratory-shortening expiratory-prolonging stimulus trains delivered in the region of the nucleus parabrachialis medialis and compared the responses to those observed during trains delivered to the vagus in the same animals (pentobarbital, sodium-anesthetized paralyzed cats). The inspiratory inhibitory effect of the pontine stimulus was assessed from the effect the stimulus has on threshold for terminating inspiration. Stimulus effect increased gradually, reached a peak at 0.2-0.4 s, and declined thereafter. The time of occurrence of peak effect was different from that observed in the course of vagal stimulus trains. With long stimulus trains (19-40 s), the initial effect on inspiratory duration (TI) (i.e., shortening) rapidly subsided and, in six of eight animals, was replaced by TI prolongation. The initial effect on expiratory duration (TE) (i.e., prolongation) also gradually declined with time but TE remained above control throughout. The time constant of adaptation was very similar with vagal and pontine stimulus trains (12.2 and 11.0 s, respectively), but the gain of the adapting response was much more pronounced with pontine stimuli, resulting in a paradoxical effect while stimulation continued. We conclude that the response to pontine stimuli, as with vagal stimuli, displays both integrative and adaptive characteristics. The similarity of the time constants for vagal and pontine adaptation responses suggests that these two inputs share common processing pathways.     

The frequency selectivity of information-processing channels in the tactile sensory system

The frequency selectivity of the P, NP I, and NP II channels of the four-channel model of mechanoreception for glabrous skin was measured psychophysically by an adaptation tuning curve procedure. The results substantially extend the frequency range over which the frequency selectivity of these channels is known and further confirm the hypothesis that the input stage of each of these channels consists of specific sensory nerve fibers and associated receptors. Specifically, the frequency characteristics of Pacinian nerve fibers, rapidly adapting (RA) nerve fibers, and slowly adapting Type II (SA II) nerve fibers were found to be the peripheral neurophysiological correlates of the P, NP I, and NP II channels, respectively. The finding that the tuning characteristic for a test stimulus of 250 Hz delivered through a small (0.008 cm²) contactor depended dramatically on the duration of the test stimulus whereas the detection threshold did not, provides new evidence in support of the hypothesis that separate NP II and P channels exist.     

Flight performance, echolocation and foraging behaviour in noctule bats Nyctalus noctula

The noctule Nyctulus noctula (Schreber, 1774) is a relatively large (c. 25 g) insectivorous bat which catches insects on the wing (by aerial hawking). Emergence at a maternity roost was earliest relative to sunset when females were lactating, and bats may then have risked predation by flying at higher light levels during a period of high energy demand. Flight performance was quantified by using stereophotogrammetry. At feeding sites bats flew at 6.0 ± 2.1 m/s. This was faster than predicted minimum power speed (V _mp), and either between V _mp and maximum range speed (V _mr), or close to their predicted V _mr, depending on which aerodynamic model of flight power requirements was used. The echolocation behaviour of noctules is flexible. Long duration, low frequency calls (c. 20 kHz) with little frequency modulation were emitted while cruising, but at foraging sites the calls became more frequency-modulated. As the noctule is traditionally thought of as using low frequency echolocation, it was expected to receive weak echoes from small targets and therefore to specialize in eating large insect prey. Although the bats ate mainly beetles, large numbers of small dipterans were also eaten. The noctule is probably able to detect such small items because, when foraging, its calls become broadband and sweep from high frequencies. Higher harmonics are also present, and these may assist in the detection of small prey. In noctules, as in many bats, there appears to be a 1:1 link between wingbeat and call production during the search phase of foraging.     

Patterns of leaf surface wetness for montane and subalpine plants

The frequency and duration of water on leaf surfaces have important consequences for plant growth and photosynthetic gas exchange. The objective of the present study was to compare the frequency and duration of leaf wetness under natural field conditions among species and to identify variation in structural features of leaves that may reduce surface wetness. During June–September 1992 in the central Rocky Mountains (USA), natural leaf wetting due to rain and dewfall was observed on 79 of 89 nights in open meadow habitats compared to only 29 of 89 nights in the understorey. Dew formation occurred at relative humidities that were often well below 100% because of radiational heat exchange with cold night skies and low wind speeds (< 0.5 m s^?1). A survey of 50 subalpine/montane species showed that structural characteristics associated with the occurrence and duration of leaf surface wetness differed among species and habitats. Both adaxial and abaxial surfaces accumulated moisture during rain and dewfall events. Leaf surfaces of open-meadow species were less wettable (P= 0.008), and had lower droplet retention (P= 0.015) and more stomata P= 0.017) than adjacent understorey species. Also, leaf trichomes reduced the area of leaf surface covered by moisture. Ecophysiological importance is suggested by the high frequency of leaf wetting events in open microsites, influences on growth and gas exchange, and correspondence between leaf surface wettability and habitat.     

Biomechanical mechanism for transitions in phase and frequency of arm and leg swing during walking

As humans increase walking speed, there are concurrent transitions in the frequency ratio between arm and leg movements from 2:1 to 1:1 and in the phase relationship between the movements of the two arms from in-phase to out-of-phase. Superharmonic resonance of a pendulum with monofrequency excitation had been proposed as a potential model for this phenomenon. In this study, an alternative model of paired pendulums with multiple-frequency excitations is explored. It was predicted that the occurrence of the concurrent transitions was a function of (1) changes in the magnitude ratio of shoulder accelerations at step and stride frequencies that accompany changes in walking speed and (2) proximity of these frequencies to the natural resonance frequencies of the arms modeled as a pair of passive pendulums. Model predictions were compared with data collected from 14 healthy young subjects who were instructed to walk on a treadmill. Walking speeds were manipulated between 0.18 and 1.52 m/s in steps of 0.22 m/s. Kinematic data for the arms and shoulders were collected using a 3D motion analysis system, and simulations were conducted in which the movements of a double-pendulum system excited by the accelerations at the suspension point were analyzed to determine the extent to which the arms acted as passive pendulums. It was confirmed that the acceleration waveforms at the shoulder are composed primarily of stride and step frequency components. Between the shoulders, the stride frequency components were out-of-phase, while the step frequency components were in-phase. The amplitude ratio of the acceleration waveform components at the step and stride frequencies changed as a function of walking speed and were associated with the occurrence of the transitions. Simulation results using these summed components as excitatory inputs to the double-pendulum system were in agreement with actual transitions in 80% of the cases. The potential role of state-dependent active muscle contraction at shoulder joints on the occurrence of the transitions was discussed. Due to the tendency of arm movements to stay in the vicinity of their primary resonance frequency, these active muscle forces were hypothesized to function as escapements that created limit cycle oscillations at the shoulders resonant frequency.     

The echolocation and hunting behavior of the bat,Pipistrellus kuhli

Summary The echolocation and hunting behavior ofPipistrellus kuhli was studied in the field using multi-exposure photography synchronized with high-speed tape recordings. During the search phase, the bats used 8–12 ms signals with sweeps (sweep width 3–6 kHz) and pulse intervals near 100 ms or less often near 200 ms (Figs. 1 and 2). The bats seemed to have individual terminal frequencies that could lie between 35 and 40 kHz. The duty cycle of searching signals was about 8%. The flight speed of hunting bats was between 4.0 and 4.5 m/s. The bats reacted to insect prey at distances of about 70 to 120 cm. Given the flight speed, the detection distance was estimated to about 110 to 160 cm. Following detection the bat went into the approach phase where the FM sweep steepened (to about 60 kHz bandwidth) and the repetition rate increased (to about 30 Hz). The terminal phase or buzz, which indicates prey capture (or attempted capture), was composed of two sections. The first section contained signals similar to those in the approach phase except that the pulse duration decreased and the repetition rate increased. The second section was characterized by a sharp drop in the terminal frequency (to about 20 kHz) and by very short pulses (0.3 ms) at rates of up to 200 Hz (Figs. 1 and 3). Near the beginning of the buzz the bat prepared for capturing the prey by extending the wings and forming a tail pouch (Fig. 4). A pause of about 100 ms in sound emission after the buzz indicated a successful capture (Fig. 4). Pulse duration is discussed in relation to glint detection and detection distance. It is argued that the minimum detection distance can be estimated from the pulse duration as the distance where pulse-echo overlap is avoided.Abbreviations CF constant frequency - FM frequency modulated     

Time Course and Action Spectrum of Vibrotactile Adaptation

In a series of experiments designed to explore the processes underlying adaptation of the sense of flutter-vibration, vibrotactile threshold was measured on the pad of the index finger, using Békésy tracking. Unadapted thresholds were first measured, for a number of frequencies (4-90 Hz) and contactor sizes (1-8 mm diameter). As expected, these measurements indicated the presence of (1) a Pacinian system possessing spatial summation and increasing in sensitivity, as frequency was raised, at the rate of 12 dB/octave; and (2) a non-Pacinian system showing little spatial summation, and with a frequency characteristic matching that of the NP I mechanism of Bolanowski et al. (1988). These baseline data of Experiment 1 guided the selection of stimulus parameters for subsequent experiments, in which threshold for a test stimulus was measured before, during, and after periods of vibrotactile adaptation.

In Experiment 2, test stimuli of 10 H_z and 50 H_z were combined factorially with 30-dB SL adapting stimuli of the same two frequencies. When the test stimulus was 10 Hz, the two adapting frequencies were equally effective in raising threshold; however, when the 50-Hz test stimulus was used, the 50-Hz adapting stimulus raised threshold by a greater amount than did the 10-Hz adapter. These results confirm on the finger the independence of adaptation in Pacinian and non-Pacinian channels, a result previously established on the thenar by other workers. For all four frequency combinations, threshold rose exponentially with a time constant of 1.5-2 min.

In Experiment 3, an action spectrum was determined, showing the adapting amplitude needed at each of a series of frequencies to raise the threshold of a 10-Hz stimulus by 10 dB; this spectrum was essentially flat from 30 to 90 Hz. The results, taken in conjunction with what is known about rapidly adapting cutaneous mechanoreceptors, imply that the effectiveness of an adapting stimulus is not determined solely by the amount of activity it generates in first-order afferents.     

Time course and action spectrum of vibrotactile adaptation

In a series of experiments designed to explore the processes underlying adaptation of the sense of flutter-vibration, vibrotactile threshold was measured on the pad of the index finger, using Békésy tracking. Unadapted thresholds were first measured, for a number of frequencies (4-90 Hz) and contactor sizes (1-8 mm diameter). As expected, these measurements indicated the presence of (1) a Pacinian system possessing spatial summation and increasing in sensitivity, as frequency was raised, at the rate of 12 dB/octave; and (2) a non-Pacinian system showing little spatial summation, and with a frequency characteristic matching that of the NP I mechanism of Bolanowski et al. (1988). These baseline data of Experiment 1 guided the selection of stimulus parameters for subsequent experiments, in which threshold for a test stimulus was measured before, during, and after periods of vibrotactile adaptation. In Experiment 2, test stimuli of 10 Hz and 50 Hz were combined factorially with 30-dB SL adapting stimuli of the same two frequencies. When the test stimulus was 10 Hz, the two adapting frequencies were equally effective in raising threshold; however, when the 50-Hz test stimulus was used, the 50-Hz adapting stimulus raised threshold by a greater amount than did the 10-Hz adapter. These results confirm on the finger the independence of adaptation in Pacinian and non-Pacinian channels, a result previously established on the thenar by other workers. For all four frequency combinations, threshold rose exponentially with a time constant of 1.5-2 min. In Experiment 3, an action spectrum was determined, showing the adapting amplitude needed at each of a series of frequencies to raise the threshold of a 10-Hz stimulus by 10 dB; this spectrum was essentially flat from 30 to 90 Hz. The results, taken in conjunction with what is known about rapidly adapting cutaneous mechanoreceptors, imply that the effectiveness of an adapting stimulus is not determined solely by the amount of activity it generates in first-order afferents.     

Vegetation abundance in lowland flood plan lakes determined by surface area, age and connectivity

SUMMARY 1. We analysed the vegetation structure of 215 lakes in the flood plain of the river Lower Rhine in relation to environmental variables related to hydrological connectivity, lake morphometry, lake age and land use on adjacent land. 2. The frequency distribution of the cover of submerged macrophytes was not normal, implying that submerged macrophytes in any one lake were either scarce or abundant. 3. We observed clear water lakes with submerged macrophyte dominance over a wide range of total P concentration (0.020–0.40 mg total P L^?1). 4. Multiple logistic regression indicated that the probability of dominance by submerged macrophytes decreased markedly with the surface area, depth and age of the lakes. The surface area effect occurred independently of the depth. Further, there was a negative relationship between submerged macrophyte dominance and the long‐term annual duration of inundation by the river. 5. Nymphaeid cover showed a distinct optimum with respect to mean lake depth, being almost absent in lakes shallower than 0.5 m. In contrast to what was found for submerged plants, the probability of occurrence of nymphaeids increased with lake age. 6. The probability of helophyte occurrence increased with lake age, and decreased with the presence of trees, cattle grazing, surface area, use of manure and mean lake depth. 7. In all cases the critical level of one factor (e.g. mean lake depth) depended on other factors (e.g. surface area or age of lake). Thus, in the present study, small lakes tended to remain dominated by submerged macrophytes up to a greater depth than large lakes, and helophytes colonised smaller lakes in an earlier phase. 8. The effect of inundation by the river was modest. This could be because most of our lakes are rarely inundated during the growing season and experience only moderate current velocities while flooded. 9. The results have practical implications for future management of flood plains for conservation purposes. In new water bodies, macrophyte domination will be promoted if many small shallow lakes, rather than few large deep ones, are excavated.