Molluscan grazing and macroalgal zonation on a rocky intertidal platform at Perth,Western Australia

Abstract Intertidal limestone platforms off Perth show a characteristic pattern of algal zonation, with dense macroalgal beds nearshore bounded by a ‘barren zone’ along the seaward edge. Abalone (Haliotis roei) and several species of limpets and chitons are abundant in the barren zone, which is generally devoid of non-coralline macroalgae. The relative importance of abalone versus limpets and chitons in limiting macroalgal abundance in the barren zone was evaluated by manipulating the presence of each group in a factorial experiment. Percentage algal cover was measured photographically in 0.25m² plots at 1–2 month intervals for 9 months. Mean algal cover (mainly the foliose green alga, Ulva rigida) was highest in plots where all grazers were excluded (77–99%), intermediate where only limpets and chitons were excluded (37–85%), and lowest where only abalone were excluded (4–30%) or where no grazers were excluded (2–19%). The effect of limpets and chitons accounted for 55–89% of the variance in total algal cover, whereas the effect of abalone generally accounted for <10% of the variance. Similar results were obtained in terms of the biomass of Ulva rigida at the end of the experiment. Haliotis roei are relatively large and sedentary herbivores, feeding mainly on drift algae. Their effect on algal abundance was mediated both through pre-emption of space, which might otherwise be colonized by algae, and by grazing around their home scar. Limpets and chitons are smaller than abalone, but were much more abundant. Intensive grazing of the reef surface by limpets and chitons precluded the establishment of non-coralline macroalgae, even where abalone were absent.     

Tuberculosis y hacinamiento carcelario desde la perspectiva de las inequidades sociales en salud en Colombia, 2018

Introduction:

Prison population is affected by tuberculosis (TB) due to prison overcrowding. This situation reflects an inequity in health, understood as an unfair and avoidable difference between individuals and populations.

Objective:

To estimate the conditions of prison overcrowding as health inequity in prison population suffering from TB in Colombia during 2018.

Materials and methods:

This is an ecological study to estimate inequities at the national level in prison population through the use of the World Health Organization methodology for the measurement of inequalities. Based on data from the public health surveillance system, the incidence of TB was taken as an indicator and the percentage of overcrowding as an equity stratifier. Simple and complex measures of inequality were calculated.

Results:

The relative inequality between the lowest and highest quintiles of crowding showed that TB incidence among prison population with the highest crowding was 1.92 times that of the group with the lowest crowding. The inequality index identified an excess of 724 TB cases per 100,000 among those with the highest concentration of overcrowding. The health concentration index was -0.121, which shows that the incidence was concentrated in the group with the most overpopulation.

Conclusion:

In Colombia, prison population in overcrowded conditions and suffering from TB has to face unfair and avoidable inequalities as compared with those not living in these conditions. Policies are required to reduce overcrowding and improve living conditions in prisons.     

A distinct gradient of fouling occurs across shells of rare under-boulder chitons

It is recognised that more research is needed on ecology of rare intertidal invertebrates to understand their ecological functions and aid their conservation. An example is chitons which are specialists of under-boulder habitat. Little is known about their interactions with the environment or other species, including spirorbid tubeworms which can co-occur in great abundances. This study describes for the first time a distinct pattern of spirorbid-tube fouling across the surfaces of chiton shells, and a similar pattern involving black staining of chitons from anoxic conditions. Posterior valves had 2–5 times as much fouling compared to anterior valves. This may have been caused by forward movement of chitons abrading away the anterior fouling. But signs of wear on shells that are caused by abrasion were also measured, and these were homogenous across the shell surface, suggesting abrasion does not cause the fouling pattern. I found five individuals of Cryptoplax striata (Lamarck, 1819) which were stained black by anoxic iron monosulphides, and the stained area was more than 10 times greater on posteriors than anteriors. These patterns may provide clues about interactions of chitons with fouling species, or about the types of microhabitats where chitons predominantly position different parts of their bodies.     

Dilation of the endoplasmic reticulum in beta cells due to molecular overcrowding?: Kinetic simulations of extension limits and consequences on proinsulin synthesis

Insulin regulates the energy homeostasis of the human body. This is synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic beta cells from proinsulin. Chronic hyperglycemia increases considerably the proinsulin secretion, overcrowding the ER. Recent experimental evidence demonstrates that such states favor the proinsulin denaturation. The biophysical mechanism of this cellular dysfunction remains largely unknown. We use basic molecular principles and numerical simulations of time-dependent crowding conditions in the ER to show that crowding effects enhance the propensity of proinsulin molecules to (mis)fold in compressed, nonnative structures. Present results suggest: i) misfolding events and toxic accumulations increase dramatically if the proinsulin load exceeds 50% of the available space and ii) insufficient lag time for the relaxation of the ER between consecutive proinsulin uploads can cause irreversible alterations of folding capabilities. Present study may prove useful in generating new testable statements on circumstances leading to the development of diabetes.     

豆蚜有翅蚜产生的原因

本文研究拥挤、寄土质量、温度和蚜型等因子对大豆蚜(Ahis glyeines)有翅蚜产生的影响。结果表明：1.大豆蚜无翅胎生成好个体间的拥挤是有翅蚜产生的主要原因。在低密度下拥挤反应随密度增大而增强,但过度拥挤会导致反应的降低。无翅若好间的拥挤不能导致其本身发育为有翅胎生蚜。 2.寄主质量能改变无翅胎生成蚜对拥挤的反应。每笼2头经成熟叶片处理的无翅胎生成蚜后代中有姻蚜的比例高于幼嫩叶片和对照(无叶片)处理,且饥饿不能促进有翅蚜的产生。3.温度能影响有翅蚜的产生。较高的温度(30℃和25℃)较21℃对有翅胎生蚌的产生有较强的抑制作用。4.不同母蚜型产生有翊蚜的能力不同。有翅胎生蚜间的拥挤也能使其在后代中产生少量的有翊蚜,但对拥挤的敏感程度低于无翅胎生蚜。     

High fat diet prevents over-crowding induced decrease of sex ratio in mice

Adaptive theory predicts that mothers would be advantaged by adjusting the sex ratio of their offspring in relation to their offspring's future reproductive success. In the present study, we tested the effect of housing mice under crowded condition on the sex ratio and whether the fat content of the diet has any influence on the outcome of pregnancies. Three-week-old mice were placed on the control diet (NFD) for 3 weeks. Thereafter the mice were allotted randomly to two groups of 7 cages each with 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16 mice in every cage to create increasing crowding gradient and fed either NFD or high fat diet (HFD). After 4 weeks, dams were bred and outcomes of pregnancy were analyzed. The average dam body weight (DBW) at conception, litter size (LS) and SR were significantly higher in HFD fed dams. Further, male biased litters declined with increasing crowding in NFD group but not in HFD. The LS and SR in NFD declined significantly with increasing crowding, whereas only LS was reduced in HFD group. We conclude that female mice housed under overcrowding conditions shift offspring SR in favor of daughters in consistent with the TW hypothesis and high fat diet reduces this influence of overcrowding.     

Chitons’ apparent camouflage does not reduce predation by green crabs Carcinus maenas

Chitons are very common molluscs on European rocky shores. They are common prey of fish and crabs and often display several colour morphs within a given habitat. Predation is one of the potential mechanisms accounting for chiton colour polymorphism. The colour variation is considered to provide a camouflage protection through a match with the substratum surface typology. However, the effectiveness of chiton polymorphism as a predation defence requires further investigation. Previously we found a relationship between chiton colour morphs and substrate characteristics, with chitons most commonly found on substrates that were of similar colour to their shells. Here, we examined whether each morph displayed an active choice for matching the substratum. Next, we assessed if the predation success of the intertidal common crab Carcinus maenas varied significantly with the absence/presence of an apparent camouflage effect created between the chiton colour morph and the substratum type. The present study indicates that chiton colour morphs probably actively choose substratum types where they blend in. Carcinus maenas was able to prey on all Lepidochitona cinereus colour morphs, regardless of the substrate camouflage effect. Surprisingly, the predation frequency was higher on camouflaged chitons than on contrasting chitons. It was concluded that chiton camouflage is probably not a defence mechanism against predation by the crab C. maenas, and that chiton colour polymorphism is probably promoted by other, more visual predators.     

Enhanced growth at low population density in Daphnia: the absence of crowding effects or relief from visual predation?

1. It has been suggested that chemical information from crowded populations of an animal such as Daphnia carries a cue indicating imminent food limitation, and we suggest that in the presence of fish kairomones, it may also convey a hint of the need to enhance antipredation defences. 2. We performed two‐factorial experiments with Daphnia grown in flow‐through plankton chambers in medium containing high levels of Scenedesmus food plus chemical information on either low or high population density levels and in the presence or absence of fish chemical cues (kairomones) and recorded (i) the effects on Daphnia growth rate and reproduction, and (ii) the effects on Daphnia depth selection. Further depth‐selection experiments were performed to test the reaction of Daphnia to crowding information at different Daphnia concentrations and to test its effect on daytime and night‐time depth selection by different Daphnia instars in the presence of kairomones. 3. The effects of crowding information alone (in the absence of kairomones) were weak and were not significantly strengthened by the addition of kairomones. The effects of kairomones alone (in the absence of crowding information) were much stronger and were increased by the presence of crowding chemicals: Daphnia selected greater depths in daylight (the later the instar and the larger its body size, the greater the depth), their body growth was slower and daily reproductive investment reduced, compared with Daphnia grown in the absence of crowding information. This suggested that crowding chemicals carry a cue indicating the need to invest more into antipredation defences. 4. The adaptive significance of these effects was confirmed by the differential vulnerability to predation of the Daphnia when offered as prey to live roach after being grown for 6 days either in the presence (higher vulnerability) or in the absence (lower vulnerability) of information on high density. 5. The strong interaction between crowding information and fish kairomones may be explained either as the reaction to a cue indicating impending food stress or as the reaction to a signal of increased predation risk. While the former scenario is already known from crowding studies, the latter is a novel idea that stems from the old concept of ‘low‐density anti‐predation refuge’. The two scenarios are not mutually exclusive: each stems from the need to invest in survival rather than in growth and reproduction [Corrections were made to this paragraph after first online publication on 4 April 2012].     

目标和干扰子之间的拓扑性质差异可以削弱拥挤效应

"拥挤效应"被认为是外周视觉物体辨认过程中的一个重要瓶颈.它是指当目标被干扰子包围,在外周视野呈现时,观察者辨认目标的能力被大大削弱,尤其是当目标和干扰子之间存在某种相似性时.许多研究分别试图在不同层次上提出解释这一现象的机制.本文通过三个实验,使用了不同的视觉刺激图形的辨认任务(例如,三角形和箭头的朝向判断、数字和字母的辨认以及S形图形的朝向辨认),测量了目标和干扰子之间中心距离的阈值,结果一致地发现,当目标和干扰子之间存在拓扑性质差异(洞的个数差异)时,拥挤效应会显著降低,并且排除了目标和干扰子之间的主观相似性、形状和面积差异等可能的因素.从知觉组织的角度验证了当目标和干扰子之间存在拓扑性质差异时,拥挤效应会显著降低,这是首次发现的一个影响拥挤效应的新的维度.本文结果不仅为拥挤效应的机制提供了一个新的解释,也为大范围首先拓扑知觉在知觉物体形成中的作用提供了支持性证据.     

The effect of crowding on alate production and weight of apterous exules of the apple-grass aphid, Rhopalosiphum insertum

Offspring of Rhopalosiphum insertum are most sensitive to crowding immediately before and after birth. Crowding throughout the nymphal and adult life of the mothers irreversibly determines most offspring as alatae whether the offspring are crowded or not. Offspring of mothers having less exposure to crowding require additional stimuli after birth. The possible evolutionary advantages of such a system are discussed. Hormonal control of alary polymorphism is implicated. The weight of apterae declined with increased crowding. This is correlated with an increase in alate production, and may thus serve to limit the population increase to a level tolerable by the plant without killing it.     

Experimental Removal and Recovery of Subtidal Grazers Highlights the Importance of Functional Redundancy and Temporal Context

The extent to which different grazers are functionally redundant has strong implications for the maintenance of community structure and function. Grazing by red urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus) on temperate rocky reefs can initiate a switch from invertebrate or macroalgal dominance to an algal crust state, but can also cause increases in the density of molluscan mesograzers. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that red urchins and lined chitons (Tonicella spp.) are redundant in the maintenance of available space, defined as encrusting algae and bare rock. In a factorial field experiment replicated at three sites, we reduced the densities of urchins and chitons on subtidal rock walls for nine months. The effects of grazers were interpreted in the context of natural temporal variation by monitoring the benthic community one year before, during, and after grazer removal. The removal of each grazer in isolation had no effect on the epilithic community, but the removal of both grazers caused an increase in sessile invertebrates. The increase was due primarily to clonal ascidians, which displayed a large (∼75%) relative increase in response to the removal of both grazers. However, the observed non-additive responses to grazer removal were temporary and smaller than seasonal fluctuations. Our data demonstrate that urchins and chitons can be redundant in the maintenance of available space, and highlight the value of drawing conclusions from experimental manipulations within an extended temporal context.     

The effect of intraspecific competition on the development and quality of Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (Rhabditida: Rhabditidae)

The effect of intraspecific competition on the development and reproduction of the slug parasitic nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita was studied in a series of laboratory experiments. Different inocula concentrations (1, 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, 500 and 1000) of P. hermaphrodita dauer juveniles (DJ) were applied to 0.02 g of homogenised slug Deroceras reticulatum on agar in multi-well plates and the development time, yield, lipid content, and body length of females and DJs were recorded. There was an inverse relationship between dose and recorded female length or lipid content. In newly emerged DJs the body length and lipid content were relatively invariable up to a dose of 250 DJs (ranging between 850 and 925 µm, 6.8 and 7.4, respectively), and decreased at higher doses (500 and 1000 DJs). The yield increased with increasing dosage to its optimum at a dose of 100 (200,000 DJs per 1 g of substrate) DJs and thereafter decreased. In the treatment with the highest dose (1000 DJs), only a minor portion of the inoculum developed to adult stage and completed their reproduction cycle while the rest remained at the larval stage. It might, therefore, be concluded that P. hermaphrodita tolerates intraspecific competition to a certain level at which crowding becomes too severe and a part of the inoculum do not develop and probably leave the site to avoid the fatal overcrowding. In conclusion, we show that intraspecific competition negatively affects the yield and quality of DJs of P. hermaphrodita, but it seems that this nematode can partly prevent overcrowding by avoiding occupied sites.     

New data on the enigmatic Ocruranus–Eohalobia group of Early Cambrian small skeletal fossils

Abstract: The Ocruranus–Eohalobia group, whose members were variously considered to be brachiopods, bivalves, chitons, tommotiids and coeloscleritophorans, are difficult to classify because of lack of morphological detail and evidence for skeletal reconstruction. New specimens from South China reveal more information about Ocruranus–Eohalobia and allow progress towards deciphering the skeletal reconstruction and phylogenetic affinity of this enigmatic group. Many specimens have a phosphatic inner and outer coat (mould) with empty space in between that resulted from dissolution of the original shell. Moreover, many of the internal moulds show a previously unknown type of shell microstructure that consisted of stacked layers of highly organized, acicular crystallites that radiated from the apex of the shell towards the aperture. The dissolved shell and needle‐like crystals suggest an original calcareous, probably aragonitic, shell mineralogy. A few specimens also show a polygonal texture in regions that suggests the shell had a thin, prismatic inner shell microstructure. Ocruranus and Eohalobia belong to the same skeleton, and we herein synonymize Eohalobia with the older Ocruranus. Moreover, new specimens from Meishucun reveal a third type of shell plate, similar in form and inferred placement to intermediate valves of chitons. Ocruranus is likely a mollusc, and possibly a member of the chiton stem lineage. If so, then the beginning of the known record of chitons would be extended back from late Cambrian (Saukia Zone; Furongian) to early Cambrian (Meishucunian; Series 1).     

Are females selected against in ephemeral habitats? The case of a holometabolous insect (Chironomus pulcher)

Adults of the rain-pool dwelling midge Chironomus pulcher are sexually dimorphic with females larger than males. This difference is achieved by females remaining in the growing larval stage for longer. When food is scarce, as under crowded conditions, the average size of both sexes is reduced, but the difference between them is maintained. However, more females perish, presumably because they are unable to achieve a minimum female size. Under conditions of crowding, there is thus a switch in favour of males. Since crowding due to a diminishing habitat is a frequent event in rain-pools, males seem fitter than females in C. pulcher. This paradox is discussed.     

Comparison of the wing polyphenic response of pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) to crowding and predator cues

相似文献   

The role of temperature, photoperiod, crowding and plant quality on the production of alate viviparous females of the bird cherry-oat aphid,Rhopalosiphum padi

Experiments indicated that for offspring of apterousRhopalosiphum padi (L.) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), photoperiod and crowding were the most important determinants of wing development whereas crowding and plant quality were more significant for the next generation. Plant quality became increasingly important as temperature increased while crowding became less so. More alates developed on plants previously infested with aphids, indicating that aphid feeding reduced plant quality. High temperature suppressed alatoid production, but could be overcome by crowding. Temperature appeared to influence wing development indirectly rather than directly by acting on the aphid through the plant. Adult weight and potential fecundity were also reduced for aphids which fed on previously infested plants.     

Differential response to larval crowding of a long‐ and a short‐lived medfly biotype

Response of endophytic fruit fly species (Tephritidae) to larval crowding is a form of scramble competition that may affect important life history traits of adults, such as survival and reproduction. Recent empirical evidence demonstrates large differences in adult life history traits, especially longevity, among Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata; "medfly") biotypes obtained from different regions of the world. However, whether the evolution of long lifespan is associated with response to stress induced by larval crowding has not been fully elucidated. We investigated, under constant laboratory conditions, the response of a short‐ and a long‐lived medfly biotypes to stress induced by larval crowding. Survival and development of larvae and pupae and the size of resulting pupae were recorded. The lifespan and age‐specific egg production patterns of the obtained adults were recorded. Our findings reveal that increased larval density reduced immature survival (larvae and pupae) in the short‐lived biotype but had rather neutral effects on the longed‐lived one. Only larvae of the long‐lived biotype were capable of prolonging their developmental duration under the highest crowding regime to successfully pupate and emerge as adults. Response of emerging adults to larvae crowding conditions was similar in the two medfly biotypes. Those individuals emerging from high larval density regimes had reduced longevity and fecundity. Long‐lived biotype individuals, however, appeared to suffer a higher cost in longevity compared with the short‐lived one. The importance of our findings to understand the evolution of long lifespan is discussed.     

Effects of crowding on life history parameters of four green leafhoppers,Nephotettix spp. (Homoptera: Cicadellidae)

The effects of intraspecific crowding on the different life history parameters of the three tropical and subtropical green leafhoppers, Nephotettix virescensStål ,N. nigropictusDistant and N. malayanusIshihara etKawase , and one temperate species, N. cincticepsUhler , were studied under 25±1°C using the susceptible Japonica rice variety “Nipponbare”. Crowding during the immature stages of the four species prolonged the nymphal developmental period and resulted to smaller adults with reduced fecundity and shorter life span. Similarly, crowding during the adult stage also shortened the life span of both sexes of adults and decreased the fecundity of females of the four species. The effect of crowding during the adult stage was more adverse than the effect of crowding during the immature stages. N. cincticeps seemed more sensitive to crowding even at lower densities whereas the three tropical species were sensitive mostly at higher densities.     

The role of medium conditioning in the population dynamics of the housefly

The role of larval medium conditioning on the behavior of larvae and of ovipositing adults of the housefly, Musca domestica L., was investigated through behavioral preference tests. Larvae were strongly attracted to medium conditioned by themselves or other larvae, while adult females overwhelmingly oviposited in fresh medium. Medium conditioning occurs within a few hours after hatching of an egg cohort and is effective in preventing overcrowding of a single site by shutting off further oviposition within 24 hours after eggs are initially deposited. A model of medium conditioning optimizes density for developing larvae and could also provide for regulation of local larval populations.