Hybridization in agricultural weeds: A review from ecological,evolutionary, and management perspectives

Agricultural weeds frequently hybridize with each other or with related crop species. Some hybrid weeds exhibit heterosis (hybrid vigor), which may be stabilized through mechanisms like genome duplication or vegetative reproduction. Even when heterosis is not stabilized, hybridization events diversify weed gene pools and often enable adaptive introgression. Consequently, hybridization may promote weed evolution and exacerbate weed–crop competition. However, hybridization does not always increase weediness. Even when viable and fertile, hybrid weeds sometimes prove unsuccessful in crop fields. This review provides an overview of weed hybridization and its management implications. We describe intrinsic and extrinsic factors that influence hybrid fitness in agroecosystems. We also survey the rapidly growing literature on crop–weed hybridization and the link between hybridization and invasiveness. These topics are increasingly relevant in this era of genetic tools for crop improvement, intensive and simplified cropping systems, and globalized trade. The review concludes with suggested research priorities, including hybridization in the context of climate change, plant–insect interactions, and redesigned weed management programs. From a weed management perspective, hybridization is one of many reasons that researchers and land managers must diversify their weed control toolkits.     

杂草科学管理——理论基础与实施途径

Scientific management of weeds is theoretically based on ecology.The implementation methods incladeIntensifying the weed biology and ecology research, especially those of the heavy weeds;Intensifying the research of developing competition between the crop and the weed;Utilizing a allelopathy the gene engineering and breeding against the weeds;Utilizing allelopathy between the crop and the weed, and utilizing biological and agricultural measurements to control the weeds.     

冬小麦播种密度和施肥方式对麦田杂草群落组成及生长的影响

在半湿润地区的土垫旱耕人为土上,以冬小麦品种小偃22为指示作物,通过田间小区试验研究了不同施肥条件下冬小麦田间杂草种群的组成以及在4个生育期(越冬期、返青期、拔节期、成熟期)田间杂草密度和生物量的变化.结果表明:(1)在冬小麦全生育期内共发现以猪殃殃、麦家公、婆婆纳、播娘蒿、泽漆、荠菜等为主的17种杂草,不同生育期杂草的优势种群不同,而且杂草总密度表现为越冬期>返青期>拔节期,生物量表现为拔节期>返青期>越冬期;(2)与不施肥处理(P0N0)比较,单施氮肥增加了杂草密度和生物量,在氮磷配施条件下,氮肥对生物量有极显著影响且随施氮量增加表现为减小趋势,其中PN45处理的杂草生物量最大并比P0N0增加51.8%;施磷对杂草生物量有极显著影响,其中单施磷比P0N0处理增加44.0%,PN135处理比P0N135处理增加24.0%.(3)低密度播种比正常密度播种能显著增加杂草生物量,平均增加幅度达82.9%.结果表明,通过增施氮肥和适当增加种植密度,可在一定程度上控制杂草发生,促进作物良好生长.     

Weed development in spring wheat after contrasting soil tillage and nitrogen management

Soil tillage and nitrogen (N) management effects on weed species composition were evaluated in 2013 and 2014 on a clayey soil after 5‐years of organic management at the Royal Agricultural University's Harnhill Manor Farm, UK. Three tillage systems – Conventional Tillage (CT), and High and Low Intensity Non‐inversion Tillage (HINiT & LINiT) – were compared at four N fertiliser rates of 0, 70, 140 and 210 kg N ha^?1. Broad‐spectrum herbicide was applied before soil operations across the site in both years. Previous organic management legacy of high weed biomass promoted greater weed prevalence in 2013 while 2‐years of herbicide inclusion reduced weed biomass. Contrasting weather conditions across the seasons affected weed incidence. In the 2014 wet season, early weed dry weight (DM) was higher under HINiT than CT and LINiT, while no differences were observed in the 2013 dry year. At midseason, weed DM was higher under HINiT than CT and LINiT in both years, which was related to higher DM of the dominant weeds Stellaria media (L.) Vill. and Sinapis arvensis L. Grass weed DM was higher under non‐inversion tillage than CT. N fertilisation increased midseason total weed DM and weed prevalence at harvest. Spring wheat yield was the highest under CT while LINiT produced 17% higher yields than HINiT. Despite higher but still tolerable weed prevalence under both non‐inversion tillage systems and with the application of N, weeds alone was not the only yield‐limiting factor. However, results show that CT is the most reliable option for weed control in changing weather, while N fertilisation rates needs to be considered.     

Rapid kudzu eradication and switchgrass establishment through herbicide,bioherbicide and integrated programmes

Among the most important and visible weeds in the Southeastern USA is the exotic invasive vine, kudzu (Pueraria montana var. lobata). Efforts to eradicate it typically involve many years of application of restricted-use pesticides. Recent availability of effective, non-restricted-use pesticides and developments with the application of the bioherbicide Myrothecium verrucaria has made possible new control programmes for kudzu management. Field trials at three sites over two years with aminocyclopyrachlor, aminopyralid, fluroxypyr, metsulfuron methyl and combinations of these herbicides achieved 99–100% reduction in aboveground kudzu biomass. Additionally, programmes were developed that eradicated kudzu while simultaneously establishing native vegetation. One of these successful programmes integrated bioherbicide application, mechanical removal of kudzu biomass and planting switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) in an entirely chemical herbicide-free system. These field tests demonstrate a variety of methods that can be used independently or in an integrated approach for rapid kudzu eradication.     

Estimating the maximum interval between repeat surveys

Abstract Surveying species that are present in low numbers is difficult because often the survey fails to locate any individuals. One strategy to improve the sample design is to survey the site repeatedly. With repeat surveys the abundance of the target species, and hence likelihood of detection, may change between visits. We present a model for deciding on the maximum surveillance interval between repeat surveys so that there is a high probability of detecting the species. We use as an example surveys for new weed infestations and model the chance of detecting the weed before control costs reach a threshold. The maximum surveillance interval depends on the rate of weed growth, the ability to detect the weed, and the cost of controlling the weed. Typically weed growth rates are high. Fast growing plants need to be detected early before they spread, but often weeds are difficult to detect when young and still comparatively cheap to control. Results from the model to determine maximum surveillance intervals are given for five broad habitat types and seven weed types. Surveillance intervals ranged from 1 to 10 years. Longer intervals are appropriate when searching for weeds with slower growth rates, that are easier to detect, and those that can be controlled cheaply.     

红薯对农田杂草群落及其多样性的影响

为了解红薯(Ipomoea batas)对农田杂草群落和生物多样性的影响, 作者研究了云南省东南部红河州建水县5种不同覆盖度红薯田的杂草种类、密度、重要值及多样性。结果表明, 5种红薯田共统计到25种杂草, 隶属18科。其中4种入侵植物藿香蓟(Ageratum conyzoides)、鬼针草(Bidens pilosa)、牛膝菊(Galinsoga parviflora)、牛筋草(Eleusine indica)和2种本地植物马齿苋(Portulaca oleracea)、马唐(Digitaria sanguinalis)的密度较高, 为红薯田杂草群落的优势物种。随红薯覆盖度增加, 杂草优势物种的密度和重要值显著降低(P<0.05), 然而2种本地物种打碗花(Calystegia hederacea)和早熟禾(Poa annua)密度却显著增加, 2种本地物种铁苋菜(Acalypha australis)和稗(Echinochloa crusgalli)重要值与红薯覆盖度成正相关(P<0.05)。红薯覆盖度为1-25%和26-50%时, 杂草群落的物种丰富度(23.5、24.5)、Simpson指数(0.89、0.85)、Shannon-Wiener指数(2.36、2.35)和Pielou均匀度指数(0.75、0.73)较高, 说明中低水平的红薯覆盖度有利于提高群落的物种多样性。可以推断, 红薯种植改变了农田杂草的群落结构, 有利于限制优势杂草和入侵杂草的发生危害, 中低水平的红薯覆盖度可作为一种有效的旱田替代化学除草剂的生态控草措施。     

耕作措施和施肥方式对麦田杂草密度和生物量的影响

为明确我国华北地区麦玉轮作系统小麦免耕的推广和施肥方式的改变对麦季杂草生长的影响,在免耕实施5年后,调查了麦田杂草密度、单株质量和生物量。结果表明:华北地区小麦生长早期,免耕有降低麦田杂草总密度和优势种播娘蒿密度趋势,但差异并不显著;相对于传统耕作,免耕秸秆覆盖和不覆盖处理总杂草生物量显著降低,其中播娘蒿生物量分别降低了57%和73%;免耕也使播娘蒿单株质量降低了27%～53%;免耕秸秆覆盖和不覆盖处理播娘蒿的株高分别比传统耕作降低了25%和19%;但一般情况耕作方式并没有显著影响离子草和麦家公生长;相对于分次施肥,集中施肥杂草生物量降低了21%～68%,播娘蒿生物量降低了58%～65%,麦家公降低91%;免耕在一定程度上抑制了某些杂草的生长,但追肥促进了杂草的快速生长。     

The fungus Phoma multirostrata is a host-specific pathogen and a potential biocontrol agent for a broadleaf weed

Since the increasing prevalence of herbicide-resistant weeds and herbicide bans, the use of biological controls with mycoherbicides become an innovative approach of weed control. In this study, we verified the pathogenicity of Phoma multirostrata TBRC 12769 against the common weed in Thailand, tridax daisy (Tridax procumbens), with its mechanism of infection unveiled by fluorescence microscopy. P. multirostrata directly penetrated through epidermal cells, stomata, and trichomes at 48 h post-inoculation. The hyphae also propagated in the lumen of the trichome, enabling the fungus to grow subcuticular to neighboring weed tissues at the bases of leaf trichomes. The necrotic pattern emerged around the trichome. During necrosis, unicellular chlamydospores were also detected inside the leaf trichomes, suggesting an overwintering stage under stress and nutrient-depleting conditions. Trichomes of weed leaves were found to be key infection sites for pathogenesis. Topical application of conidial suspension on T. procumbens potted plants led to 60–98% and 65 and 87% disease incidence under laboratory and greenhouse conditions, respectively, on days 15–20 post-inoculation. The 16-h dew period incubation results in a sharp increase by 37% in the pathogenicity rate. The greenhouse trials verified that the fungus is non-pathogenic to eight crops. Our LC-MS analysis indicated that norharman, a known bioherbicidal compound, and other compounds were detected in the supernatant fraction of fungal culture, of which resulted in a blight symptom on T. procumbens leaves. This study demonstrated that the P. multirostrata isolate is an effective mycoherbicide for this broadleaf weed.     

Germination behaviour of Conyza bonariensis to constant and alternating temperatures across different populations

Conyza bonariensis is one of the most problematic weed species throughout the world. It is considered highly noxious due to its interference with human activities, and especially the competition it poses with economically important crops. This research investigated the temperature requirements for seed germination of four populations of C. bonariensis with distinct origin and the influence of daily alternating temperatures. For this, a set of germination tests were performed in growth chambers to explore the effect of constant and alternating temperatures. Seeds of the four populations (from Lleida, Badajoz and Seville, Spain and Bahía Blanca, Argentina) were maintained at constant temperatures ranging from 5 to 35°C. The final germination and cardinal temperatures (base, optimum and maximum) of each population were obtained. We also tested the influence of daily alternating temperatures on final germination. To do so, seeds were exposed to two temperature regimes: 5/15, 10/20, 15/25, 20/30 and 25/35°C night/day temperature (intervals increasing 5°C, with constant oscillation of 10°C) and to 18/22, 16/24, 14/26, 12/28 and 10/30°C night/day temperature (intervals with average of 20°C, but increasing the oscillation in 4°C between intervals). In general, all populations behaved similarly, with the highest germination percentages occurring in the optimum temperature range (between 21.7°C and 22.3°C) for both constant and alternating temperatures. In general, climatic origin affected germination response, where seeds obtained from the coldest origin exhibited the highest germination percentage at the lowest temperature assayed. In addition, we observed that the alternating temperatures can positively affect total germination, especially in oscillations that were further from the average optimum temperature (20°C), with high germination percentage for the oscillations of 15/25, 20/30, 18/22, 16/24, 14/26, 12/28 and 10/30°C in all populations. The cardinal temperatures obtained were significantly different across the populations. These results provide information that will facilitate a better understanding of the behaviour of Conyza and improve current field emergence models.     

Effects of weed harrowing frequency on beneficial arthropods,plants and crop yield

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Soil seedbank: Old methods for new challenges in agroecology?

The weed soil seedbank is of interest in agroecosystems as a major source of weed infestation in fields and as a reservoir of plant and seed‐feeder diversity. A seedbank is a characteristic of annual plants and has been the focus of numerous studies, as it reflects the past aboveground vegetation and is the reservoir of the future vegetation. Therefore, it potentially can be used to evaluate the past, present and future annual weed communities. The goal of this paper was to provide guidelines to help researchers to do a weed seedbank survey. Through a qualitative review of 60 weed seedbank articles, we investigate why and how the seedbank has been studied in agronomy. It shows that seedbank studies have been performed to address the following four major objectives: (a) the assessment of weed management practices on weed communities; (b) the relationship between seedbank and aboveground vegetation; (c) the study of composition and diversity of seedbank in a given area; and, (d) the quantification of seedbank as a food resource for wildlife. Because the analysis highlighted a wide range of methodologies to estimate the seedbank, we critically reviewed them. We show that the selected methodology strongly affects the seedbank estimate. Nevertheless, in our sample of research articles, the analysis revealed that the choice of the methodology was not always justified in terms of achieving a particular scientific goal, but was often determined by the resources available for the experiment (e.g., workload). While studying the soil seedbank remains of interest for scientists (proved by the amount of recent publications), it is time consuming and requires considerable botanical skill. Innovative methods of estimation are scarce and novel methodological developments are needed to increase the quality and reliability of the data obtained.     

Risk assessment method for submerged weeds in New Zealand hydroelectric lakes

The latent potential for problematic weed growth in a hydro-lake is proportional to water level fluctuation, water clarity, lake shape, littoral gradient and exposure to wave action. These five factors were used to assess a score for measuring the latent potential for weed impact and each factor was allocated a score of 1–5, with a theoretical maximum of 25. Any hydro-lake scoring above 15 could be expected to present potential inconvenience to power generation, given the presence of suitable submerged weed species. Assessment of potential impact arising from weed invasion must firstly determine what species are already established, and whether it is possible for a weed species of greater potential impact to be introduced. The risk of this occurring is dependent upon a number of factors, including public accessibility, proximity to sources of those species and the desirability of the waterbody to potential weed vectors. Once these factors are quantified, appropriate surveillance strategies in high-risk hydro-lakes may then be developed.     

Sheep grazing vs. cutting: regeneration and soil nutrient exploitation of the grassland weed Rumex obtusifolius

Broad-leaved dock (Rumex obtusifolius L., Polygonaceae) is an agronomically important perennial weed causing decreases in pasture yields and fodder quality. Non-chemical control measures for dock are often limited to frequent pulling and cutting, additionally it is usually avoided by grazing animals. Here, the regeneration of R. obtusifolius in a Rumex-infested grassland grazed by a sheep breed that explicitly feeds on dock (Ovis aries L. cv. East Prussian Skudden) was compared to cutting. Therefore, regeneration of 90 R. obtusifolius plants of three different size classes was monitored in three plots during three grazing and cutting cycles. Plant height and number of fruit-stands of regrown R. obtusifolius was significantly lower, number of leaves significantly higher after grazing than after cutting, while plant diameter was unaffected. Initially medium and large-sized plants (>40 cm diameter) were significantly more sensitive to grazing or cutting than initially smaller sized plants. Soil nitrate and ammonium concentrations in the vicinity of R. obtusifolius correlated with some regrowth parameters but were not affected by grazing or cutting. Sheep-grazed grassland communities comprised fewer legumes (p = 0.002), more grasses (p = 0.010) and fewer sward gaps (p = 0.025) than cut grassland. At the end of the experiment, abundance of R. obtusifolius in sheep grazed plots was lower than in cut plots (p = 0.089) suggesting that regrowth potential of this weed was depleted by continuous grazing and higher sward density. In conclusion, these data suggest that sheep could be considered in grassland management schemes to both directly and indirectly control Rumex infestations.     

Buffel Grass and fire in a Gidgee and Brigalow woodland: A case study from central Queensland

Summary The effects of a fire on plant community structure were examined in a remnant Gidgee (Acacia cambagei) and Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) woodland infested with the naturalized exotic, Buffel Grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) in central Queensland. Fifteen months after the fire, burnt areas had about half the basal area of living trees and more than twice the cover of Buffel Grass and Parthenium Weed (Parthenium hysterophorus) as unburnt areas. This is consistent with the idea that Buffel Grass invasion, which increases ground fuel loads in Acacia woodlands, is facilitated by burning, producing positive feedback between Buffel Grass and fire. The result is accelerating remnant degradation, making the interaction between Buffel Grass and fire an important target for management measures. Fire‐breaks and fuel reduction strategies including periodic intense grazing and canopy enhancement have potential to reduce the impact of Buffel Grass invasion, but long‐term community survival will probably require effective control of Buffel Grass. The impact of weed invasion within remnant vegetation is clearly a complex issue but the simple ‘case study’ approach employed here can both increase and communicate understanding.     

Host range and impact of the flower-feeding moth,Cochylis campuloclinium – a biological control agent for Campuloclinium macrocephalum,in South Africa

Campuloclinium macrocephalum (Less.) DC. (Asteraceae) (pompom weed), an invader in South Africa and Swaziland, threatens biodiversity conservation, agriculture and tourism in the region. We report on the host range and impact of the flower-feeding moth, Cochylis campuloclinium Brown (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), the second insect biological control agent to be considered for C. macrocephalum in South Africa. Laboratory host-specificity tests were conducted on 31 Asteraceae species. Field host range studies included 17 non-target Asteraceae species. Results of both C. campuloclinium laboratory and field host-range trials indicated that it is suitably host specific. In laboratory host-range trials, only C. macrocephalum and the closely related native, Adenostemma caffrum DC. (Asteraceae), received feeding damage, while in field host-range trials, the moth was only recorded on the target. Laboratory impact studies showed that C. campuloclinium destroyed a significant number of florets in flower buds (76%) and seeds in mature flowers (54%). Based on evidence from the native range, there appears to be no competitive interactions between C. campuloclinium and the already established stem- and leaf-deforming thrips, Liothrips tractabilis Mound & Pereyra (Thysanoptera: Phlaethripinae). The two insect agents should perform a complementary role of reducing flowering (L. tractabilis) and seed production (C. campuloclinium). Based on the above data, permission for the release of the moth was sought in August 2015.     

Is oviposition and larval damage by the leaf-mining fly Calycomyza eupatorivora (Agromyzidae) on its target weed,Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae), restricted by leaf-quality preferences?

The leaf-mining fly Calycomyza eupatorivora Spencer (Diptera: Agromyzidae) was released in the eastern coastal regions of South Africa for the biological control of the invasive shrub Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robinson. Despite widespread establishment, its ability to inflict sufficient foliar damage has been questioned. This laboratory study was initiated to provide some insight into how increasing fly populations (represented by 1, 5 and 10 mating pairs per plant) are likely to influence leaf-mining intensity and the levels of damage. On average, individual plants exposed to five mating pairs displayed significantly more larval mines (248) than those exposed to single pairs (69), while plants exposed to 10 mating pairs were intermediate (125). Similarly, at densities of five mating pairs per plant, the percentages of available leaves that were exploited peaked at 36%, while the percentages of available leaf area that were removed by larval leaf mining peaked at 22%. The non-linear relationship between leaf mining and fly density and the high percentages of unexploited leaves suggest that leaf mining may be influenced by leaf quality, the nature of which is currently unconfirmed. These results also suggest that the levels of leaf exploitation by C. eupatorivora will be too low to have any meaningful impact in the field. Field evaluations, to be reported in a later contribution, have indeed confirmed that the impact of C. eupatorivora on mature populations of C. odorata is negligible.     

Cross-fertilizing weed science and plant invasion science to improve efficient management: A European challenge

Both weed science and plant invasion science deal with noxious plants. Yet, they have historically developed as two distinct research areas in Europe, with different target species, approaches and management aims, as well as with diverging institutions and researchers involved. We argue that the strengths of these two disciplines can be highly complementary in implementing management strategies and outline how synergies were created in an international, multidisciplinary project to develop efficient and sustainable management of common ragweed, Ambrosia artemisiifolia. Because this species has severe impacts on human health and is also a crop weed in large parts of Europe, common ragweed is one of the economically most important plant invaders in Europe. Our multidisciplinary approach combining expertise from weed science and plant invasion science allowed us (i) to develop a comprehensive plant demographic model to evaluate and compare management tools, such as optimal cutting regimes and biological control for different regions and habitat types, and (ii) to assess benefits and risks of biological control. It further (iii) showed ways to reconcile different stakeholder interests and management objectives (health versus crop yield), and (iv) led to an economic model to assess invader impact across actors and domains, and effectiveness of control measures. (v) It also led to design and implement management strategies in collaboration with the various stakeholder groups affected by noxious weeds, created training opportunities for early stage researchers in the sustainable management of noxious plants, and actively promoted improved decision making regarding the use of exotic biocontrol agents at the national and European level. We critically discuss our achievements and limitations, and list and discuss other potential Old World (Afro-Eurasian) target species that could benefit from applying such an integrative approach, as typical invasive alien plants are increasingly reported from crop fields and native crop weeds are invading adjacent non-crop land, thereby forming new source populations for further spread.