Cultural Rules, Rituals, and Behavior Regulation

While it is generally agreed that culture and biology are both relevant to an understanding of human behavior, there is little consensus about the appropriate use of reductionist procedures. Disagreement abounds concerning the nature of the interaction and the relative contribution of distal and proximal mechanisms. An understanding of such issues may emerge only with long study of the interaction of variables at different conceptual levels of organization that intervene between the genes and culture. It is toward this larger end that the limited efforts of this paper are directed. Two cultural phenomena are considered: Murdoch's "social laws of sexual choice," and aspects of human ritual behavior. Although these constitute a unique organization of cultural items, I attempt to show how they are influenced by underlying biopsychological processes. I specifically reject, however, the view that cultural phenomena are isomorphic with, or can be completely reduced to, such processes. Emergent novelty and multiple possibilities are always present at more inclusive levels of organization. I argue that the relationship between the different sets of system variables is based on homologous functions and not merely on analogies.
SEYMOUR PARKER is Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City. UT 84112     

Cause-effect modeling as a general method of description and study of phenomena in complex hierarchical systems

The definition of the cause-effect model of a phenomenon and the rules of presenting these models in the form of cause-effect diagrams have been formulated. The relationship between cause-effect modeling and traditional methods of mathematical modeling has been analyzed. Examples of cause-effect models (diagrams) of phenomena of different physical nature are given, and the application of these models in studies of some problems is demonstrated. In particular, the mechanism of renormalizing the rate constans of chemical reactions in terms of dissipative resonance is considered. In addition, the renormalization of the climate sensitivity parameters and the relaxation time of the Earth climate system in terms of the two-component (CO2 + H2O) greenhouse effect is considered.     

Cause-effect modeling as a general method for describing and studying phenomena in complex hierarchical systems

A strict definition of a cause-effect model of a complex phenomenon is given, and the rules for presenting such models in the form of cause-effect diagrams are formulated. The relationship between the cause-effect modeling and conventional methods of mathematical modeling is analyzed. Examples of the cause-effect models (diagrams) of phenomena of various physical nature are presented, and the application of these models to some specific problems is shown. In particular, the mechanism of renormalizing the rate constants of chemical reactions is considered in terms of dissipative resonance. An example of renormalizing the parameters of climate sensitivity and the relaxation time of the Earth’s climatic system in terms of a two-component (CO₂ + H₂O) greenhouse effect is considered.     

Chromatographic transport through soils

Summary An evaluation is given of the chromatographic theories that may be important for the soil. Special attention is paid to the assumptions that the various authors make in order to enable a proper choice to be made of a particular theory for a particular case. The relationship between the various theories is also stressed.     

A theory of precipitation and agglutination reactions in immunological systems

Aggregation phenomena in immunological systems have been profitably treated in the past by applying theories developed to describe polymerization reactions. An interesting result of these theories is the prediction that critical ratios exist for the reactants. These are ratios at which the composition of the system changes abruptly from one characterized primarily by small aggregates to one characterized primarily by large aggregates. In this paper, these ratios are studied as a function of physical and molecular parameters. In particular, the valence of the antibody is allowed to be greater than two and certain types of intramolecular reactions are considered. The effect of antigen and antibody heterogeneity on the results is discussed by developing the theory for a particular heterogeneous system.     

Laws, causation, and explanation in the special sciences

There is the general philosophical question concerning the relationship between physics, which is often taken to be our fundamental and all-encompassing science, on one hand and the special sciences, such as biology and psychology, each of which deals with phenomena in some specially restricted domain, on the other. This paper deals with a narrower question: Are there laws in the special sciences, laws like those we find, or expect to find, in basic physics? Three arguments that are intended to show that there are no such laws are presented and examined. The paper ends with brief remarks concerning the implications of these arguments for explanation and causation in the special sciences.     

Spatial symmetries in vestibular projections to the uvula-nodulus

The discharge of secondary vestibular neurons relays the activity of the vestibular endorgans, occasioned by movements in three-dimensional physical space. At a slightly higher level of analysis, the discharge of each secondary vestibular neuron participates in a multifiber projection or pathway from primary afferents via the secondary neurons to another neuronal population. The logical organization of this projection determines whether characteristics of physical space are retained or lost. The logical structure of physical space is standardly expressed in terms of the mathematics of group theory. The logical organization of a projection can be compared to that of physical space by evaluating its symmetry group. The direct projection from the semicircular canal nerves via the vestibular nuclei to neck motor neurons has a full three-dimensional symmetry group, allowing it to maintain a three-dimensional coordinate frame. However, a projection may embed only a subgroup of the symmetry group of physical space, which incompletely mirrors the properties of physical space. The major visual and vestibular projections in the rabbit via the inferior olive to the uvula-nodulus carry three degrees of freedom—rotations about one vertical and two horizontal axes—but do not have full three dimensional symmetry. Instead, the vestibulo-olivo-nodular projection has symmetries corresponding to a product of two-dimensional vestibular and one-dimensional optokinetic spaces. This combination of projection symmetries provides the foundation for distinguishing horizontal from vertical rotations within a three dimensional space. In this study, we evaluate the symmetry group given by the physiological organization of the vestibulo-olivo-nodular projection. Although it acts on the same sets of elements and mirrors the rotations that occur in physical space, the physiological transformation group is distinct from the spatial group. We identify symmetries as products of physiological and spatial transformations. The symmetry group shapes the information the projection conveys to the uvula-nodulus; this shaping may depend on a physiological choice of generators, in the same way that function depends on the physiological choice of coordinates. We discuss the implications of the symmetry group for uvula-nodulus function, evolution, and functions of the vestibular system in general.     

An experimental approach to the fundamental principles of hemodynamics

An experimental model has been developed to give students hands-on experience with the fundamental laws of hemodynamics. The proposed experimental setup is of simple construction but permits the precise measurements of physical variables involved in the experience. The model consists in a series of experiments where different basic phenomena are quantitatively investigated, such as the pressure drop in a long straight vessel and in an obstructed vessel, the transition from laminar to turbulent flow, the association of vessels in vascular networks, or the generation of a critical stenosis. Through these experiments, students acquire a direct appreciation of the importance of the parameters involved in the relationship between pressure and flow rate, thus facilitating the comprehension of more complex problems in hemodynamics.     

浙江定海次生林内物种丰富度与生物量和生产力关系的环境依赖性

迄今生物多样性与生态系统功能关系的研究主要在物种组成随机配置的人工生态系统中进行, 在自然生态系统中研究较少, 且未考虑环境因子如何影响生态系统功能及其与生物多样性的关系。本研究选取亚热带广泛分布的次生林为研究对象, 利用模型拟合的方法, 探讨亚热带次生林中物种丰富度与生物量和生产力之间的关系, 以及环境因子(海拔、坡度、坡向、土层厚度)和次生林恢复时间(林龄)对生物量、生产力、物种丰富度与生物量和生产力间关系的影响。结果表明, 当不考虑环境因子时, 物种丰富度与生物量之间存在显著的线性正相关关系, 而与生产力之间存在显著的二次关系(先增加后减少的驼峰型)。当考虑环境因子时, 个体密度和土层厚度对生物量具有显著影响, 而环境因子对生产力并无显著效应。在坡度较陡、坡向朝南及土层较厚的环境条件下, 物种丰富度与生物量具有显著的线性正相关关系; 而在坡度较缓、坡向朝北及土层较薄的环境条件下, 物种丰富度不影响生物量。在较高海拔环境条件下, 生产力随物种丰富度先增加后减少(驼峰形状), 而在其他环境条件下, 生产力均不响应物种丰富度。以上结果说明自然森林生态系统中物种丰富度与生物量和生产力的关系存在差异, 且其相互间的关系依赖于环境因子。     

稻田生物灾害生态调控的综合效益研究

单季稻田生物灾害生态调控的综合效益研究结果表明：综防田的蜘蛛群落和土壤动物群落的生物多样性均高于化防田。两类稻田蜘蛛群落物种数和个体数的差异性均达显著水平,而两类稻田土壤动物群落类群数和个体数均达极显著水平以上。综防田的杂草群落生物多样性显著低于化防田。综防田蛛虱数量存在正相关,说明稻田蜘蛛具有重要的生态调控作用。综防田农药用量、农药费用和农药残留均低于化防田。综防田的土地生产率、产值利税率和农副产品商品率均高于化防田。以综防田为代表的稻田生物灾害生态调控具有良好的生态、经济和社会效益。     

A palaeoecological model for the interpretation of wild plant species

The interpretation of subfossil records of wild plant species with respect to both environmental conditions and past vegetation is complicated by the following: (1) production and dispersal of plant remains including diaspores, (2) the formation of the soil flora, (3) taphonomic processes and differential preservation that act on subfossil assemblages and (4) methods applied to produce subfossil records. Whereas the similarity between recent plant communities and seed banks is often weak, the relationship between past vegetation and subfossil assemblages is still more complicated. It is therefore unlikely that macrofossil assemblages derived from soil samples can be considered as pure samples representing particular palaeobiocoenoses. The assumption that plant communities, in the past, may have been in some way aberrant with respect to composition and that the ecological ranges of species varied during the Quaternary has to be rejected, if not based on well considered assumptions or evidence from pure samples. Only if a sufficient number of suitable studies is available, which enable evaluation between all kinds of plant communities and their respective seed floras, can progress be made with regard to the reconstruction of past vegetation and environmental conditions. As long as these data are not available, the ecological interpretation of particular subfossil assemblages isolated from soil samples has to be carefully evaluated within their particular context.     

喀斯特天然林植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标的相关性

植物多样性的土壤生态系统功能是喀斯特生态学研究的热点之一。在贵州省茂兰国家级自然保护区不同功能区(干扰等级)内采用野外样地调查和实验室分析相结合的方法,分析了41个喀斯特森林样地的植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标值的变化规律与相关性。结果表明:(1)依据乔木层物种重要值聚类法划分的5个喀斯特森林类型包括小叶栾树-青冈栎林、香叶树-枫香林、香椿-香叶树林、灯台-小花梾木林和檵木-马尾松林,由核心区、缓冲区、实验区至外缘区,乔木层植物多样性指数、林地岩石裸露率、土壤蓄水量、肥力及养分指标呈降低趋势。(2)因子分析表明不同层片植物多样性和不同土层土壤理化因子的相关趋势性各异。相关显著的因子对数量率呈乔木灌木草本的趋势,乔木植物多样性因子起主导作用。(3)喀斯特森林乔木层植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标的相关性分3种类型。直线型是植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标值相关性中较普遍的一类,相应指标对数量率为39.84%;曲线型是植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标值相关性中机理较复杂的一类,相应指标对数量率为46.10%,其中植物多样性指数有拐点值无生态意义的指标对数量率为11.72%,有拐点值有生态意义且呈先降后升、或先升后降趋势的指标对数量率分别为17.19%;无关型是植物多样性指数和土壤理化指标值相关性不显著,相应指标对数量率为54.69%。(4)喀斯特地区水土资源管理为目标的营林措施中,天然林乔木层植物多样性指数对土壤物理、肥力和养分指标响应的拐点值可成为人工造林中物种数量与株数比例选择的参考依据之一。     

Mathematical coupling of data: correction of a common error for linear calculations

The need frequently arises in the scientific environment to investigate the relationship between quantities that are calculated from a common set of directly measured variables. However, the presence of error in the common set of measured variables distorts the relationship among the calculated quantities and can lead to incorrect conclusions. This article presents a method of correcting for such distortions in the Pearson correlation coefficient and in the linear regression coefficient for linear calculations involving two measured variables. The errors considered may be either independent of, or proportional to, the value of the variable being measured. Tests to determine whether these popular coefficients have values significantly different from zero are presented. An example from the physiology literature is presented to illustrate these techniques.     

Cell molecular computer. VII. Cell biophysics and realistic or information physics (1)]

Living organisms measure many parameters in order to have orientation in the outer medium. That is why biophysics cannot use the ordinary laws of physics and must take into account the influence on the phenomena to be studied not only of a measurement but also of a calculation process in the real physical and biophysical device predicting the future. Science taking into account the effects of the calculating process-realistical or informative (RI) physics-has different (laws) for different times, distances and numbers of measuring and predicting parameters. RI-physics deals with unreproducible events and considers only such time intervals and distances for which the prediction can be made on the basis of earlier measurements and calculations according to the laws with optimal difficulty. It is suggested that the living cell uses the laws which are close to these optimal (limiting) laws of RI-physics. Physics and quantum mechanics can be considered as a limiting case of RI-physics. In this case values of distances and times are large enough and the number of simultaneously measured independent parameters is such that the heat effect of the calculating device would become negligible. Molecular cell computer (MCC) [I] cannot calculate the interaction of a great quantity of different molecules, using the equations of quantum mechanics because the expense of the (price of action) would be very large and both MCC and the surrounding world could change.     

Physics,biology, and sociology: A reappraisal

To the extent that all biological phenomena are perceivable only through their physical manifestations, it may be justified to assume that all biological phenomena will be eventually represented in terms of physics; perhaps not of present day physics, but of some “extended” form of it. However, even if this should be correct, it must be kept in mind that representing individual biological phenomena in terms of physics is not the same as deducing from known physical laws the necessity of biological phenomena. Drawing an analogy from pure mathematics, it is possible that while every biological phenomenon may be represented in terms of physics, yet biological statements represent a class of “undecidable” statements within the framework of physics. Such a conjecture is reinforced by the history of physics itself and illustrated on several examples. The 19th century physicists tried in vain todeduce electromagnetic phenomena from mechanical ones. A similar situation may exist in regard to biological and social sciences. Quite generally, the possibility of representing a class B phenomena in terms of class A phenomena does not imply that the phenomena of class B can be deduced from those of class A. The consequences of the above on the relation between physics, biology, and sociology are studied. A tentative postulational formulation of basic biological principles are given and some consequences are discussed. It is pointed out that not only can the study of biological phenomena throw light on some physical phenomena, but that the study of social phenomena may be of value for the understanding of the structures and functions of living organisms. The possibility of a sort of “socionics” is indicated.     

Natural selection and self-organization

The Darwinian concept of natural selection was conceived within a set of Newtonian background assumptions about systems dynamics. Mendelian genetics at first did not sit well with the gradualist assumptions of the Darwinian theory. Eventually, however, Mendelism and Darwinism were fused by reformulating natural selection in statistical terms. This reflected a shift to a more probabilistic set of background assumptions based upon Boltzmannian systems dynamics. Recent developments in molecular genetics and paleontology have put pressure on Darwinism once again. Current work on self-organizing systems may provide a stimulus not only for increased problem solving within the Darwinian tradition, especially with respect to origins of life, developmental genetics, phylogenetic pattern, and energy-flow ecology, but for deeper understanding of the very phenomenon of natural selection itself. Since self-organizational phenomena depend deeply on stochastic processes, self-organizational systems dynamics advance the probability revolution. In our view, natural selection is an emergent phenomenon of physical and chemical selection. These developments suggest that natural selection may be grounded in physical law more deeply than is allowed by advocates of the autonomy of biology, while still making it possible to deny, with autonomists, that evolutionary explanations can be modeled in terms of a deductive relationship between laws and cases. We explore the relationship between, chance, self-organization, and selection as sources of order in biological systems in order to make these points.     

Carbon input to soil may decrease soil carbon content

It is commonly predicted that the intensity of primary production and soil carbon (C) content are positively linked. Paradoxically, many long‐term field observations show that although plant litter is incorporated to soil in large quantities, soil C content does not necessarily increase. These results suggest that a negative relationship between C input and soil C conservation exists. Here, we demonstrate in controlled conditions that the supply of fresh C may accelerate the decomposition of soil C and induce a negative C balance. We show that soil C losses increase when soil microbes are nutrient limited. Results highlight the need for a better understanding of microbial mechanisms involved in the complex relationship between C input and soil C sequestration. We conclude that energy available to soil microbes and microbial competition are important determinants of soil C decomposition.