Serological evidence of California group and Cache Valley virus infection in Minnesota white-tailed deer

Blood samples were obtained from 138 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) harvested at three sites surrounding the greater Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota, metropolitan area (USA) and tested for neutralizing antibody to Cache Valley virus and three California serogroup (Jamestown Canyon, La Crosse, trivittatus) viruses (Bunyaviridae). Deer at each site had neutralizing antibody to one or more California serogroup viruses and/or Cache Valley virus. The majority of adult deer (85%) had antibody to both a California serogroup virus and Cache Valley virus. Antibody prevalence varied significantly with age of the deer. Fawns had a significantly lower prevalence of antibody to either a California serogroup (17%) or Cache Valley virus (39%) than did older (greater than 1-yr-old) deer (89% for a California serogroup virus and 91% for Cache Valley virus). The geometric mean titers of antibody in fawns to California serogroup (1:6) and Cache Valley viruses (1:17) were also less than that seen in older animals (1:11 and 1:28 for California serogroup and Cache Valley viruses, respectively). Of 76 older deer with antibody to the California serogroup, 91% had antibody specific for Jamestown Canyon virus. Jamestown Canyon is the primary California serogroup virus circulating in the suburban/rural Minneapolis-St. Paul area. Transmission occurs in an enzootic pattern similar to that documented in Indiana and Michigan. Cache Valley virus also appears to be enzootically transmitted in this area. However, the impact on domestic or wild animal populations is unknown.     

Seroconversion rates to Jamestown Canyon virus among six populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Indiana

The annual seroconversion of fawns, yearlings, and adult white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to Jamestown Canyon virus (California group) was followed at six Indiana sites from 1981 through 1984. In all, sera from 1,642 deer (515 fawns, 618 yearlings, and 509 adults) were tested for neutralizing antibody to three California serogroup viruses: Jamestown Canyon, La Crosse, and trivittatus. Virtually all deer with specific neutralizing antibody showed evidence of a prior infection with Jamestown Canyon virus; only three deer showed evidence of a prior infection with only La Crosse virus and none showed evidence of an infection with only trivittatus virus. While there were no significant differences in antibody prevalence to Jamestown Canyon virus between yearling and adult deer at any site, fawns had significantly lower antibody prevalences than either of the two older age groups. Significant differences in antibody prevalence were found between northern versus southern populations of white-tailed deer in Indiana, however, no significant differences were found among the four northern populations or between the two southern populations. The mean antibody prevalences in the two southern fawn, yearling, and adult populations were 15%, 38%, and 41% respectively, while the prevalences in the four northern fawn, yearling, and adult populations were 5%, 67%, and 67% respectively. These different prevalences (northern vs. southern) correlate with the higher Jamestown Canyon virus antibody prevalence in human residents of northern Indiana (2-15%) compared to residents of southern Indiana (less than 2%) found in other studies. The significantly lower prevalence of antibody to Jamestown Canyon virus in fawns is attributed to maternal antibody protecting them from a primary infection their first summer. Yearling deer showed high rates of seroconversion following their second summer of life. These results suggest that infection of white-tailed deer in Indiana with Jamestown Canyon virus is a common phenomenon.     

Serologic evidence of arboviral infections in white-tailed deer from central Wisconsin

A survey conducted during 1979-1980 on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in central Wisconsin revealed serological evidence of infection by selected arboviruses. Among sera from 41 deer, antibody was detected for Jamestown Canyon virus (56%) and Bunyamwera group virus (80%), demonstrating their continuing endemic activity. Antibody for La Crosse virus, not found previously in sera from deer in central Wisconsin, also was detected (5%) in this study.     

Prevalence of neutralizing antibody to Jamestown Canyon virus (California group) in populations of elk and moose in northern Michigan and Ontario, Canada

Blood samples were collected from free-ranging elk (Cervus elaphus) harvested in Michigan's northern Lower Peninsula, from moose (Alces alces) relocated from Ontario's Algonquin Provincial Park to Michigan's Upper Peninsula, and from moose from Michigan's Isle Royale National Park. Sera were tested by serum dilution neutralization tests in Vero cell culture for neutralizing antibody to California serogroup viruses, in particular Jamestown Canyon (JC), La Crosse/snowshoe hare (LAC/SSH), and trivittatus (TVT) viruses. Specific neutralizing antibody to JC virus was detected in 71% of 31 and 65% of 20 moose from Algonquin and Isle Royale, respectively. An additional six moose from Algonquin and five from Isle Royale showed evidence of multiple infection. One juvenile moose from Isle Royale had specific neutralizing antibody to TVT virus. Specific neutralizing antibody to JC virus was detected also in 54% of 50 elk from Michigan; 20 of the 50 elk showed evidence of multiple infection. While no single serum sample showed specific neutralizing antibody only to LAC/SSH virus, its presence in sera from some animals may have been masked by the high prevalence of antibody to JC virus.     

Serologic evidence of bunyamwera group arbovirus infections in Wisconsin and texas deer

Sera of 81 white-tailed deer from south Texas and 283 white-tailed deer from Wisconsin were tested for neutralizing and hemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies to arboviruses of the Bunyamwera group. Neutralizing antibodies were detected in 100% of the Texas deer sera and hemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies were detected in 61% of those sera collected in 1969 and 78% of those sera collected in 1963. The prevalence of both neutralizing and hemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies in Wisconsin deer sera varied from 72-100% and 42-79% respectively depending on the geographic area tested in the years 1963 and 1969.     

Serologic survey of selected pathogens in white-tailed and mule deer in western Nebraska

Exposure of free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in western Nebraska to selected livestock pathogens was determined by serology and attempted virus isolation. Antibodies to bluetongue virus, epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus, and bovine respiratory syncytial virus were present in both species of deer. No serologic reactors to Brucella or Anaplasma were found. Attempts to isolate bluetongue virus were negative.     

Serological prevalence and isolation of Babesia odocoilei among white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Texas and Oklahoma

Serum samples collected from 581 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from Texas and from 124 white-tailed deer from Oklahoma were tested by the indirect fluorescent antibody technique against Babesia odocoilei. Prevalence of seropositive reactors varied from site to site in both states. Prevalence rates were statistically ranked as high, intermediate or low. Deer less than 12-mo-old had a significantly lower prevalence than all other age classes.     

Experimental infection of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Map) is the causative agent of paratuberculosis or Johne's disease, a chronic enteric disease of domestic ruminants as well as some nondomestic ruminants. Paratuberculosis is characterized by a protracted subclinical phase followed by clinical signs such as diarrhea, weight loss, and hypoproteinemia. Fecal shedding of Map is characteristic of both the subclinical and clinical phases, and it is important in disease transmission. Lesions of paratuberculosis are characterized by chronic granulomatous enteritis and mesenteric lymphadenitis. Animal models of paratuberculosis that simulate all aspects of the disease are rare. Oral inoculation of 9-day-old white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) on 3 June 2002 with 1.87 x 10(10) colony-forming units of Map strain K10 resulted in clinical disease (soft to diarrheic feces) as early as 146 days after inoculation; lesions consistent with paratuberculosis were observed in animals at the termination of the study. Intermittent fecal shedding of Map was seen between 28 and 595 days (4 March 2004) after inoculation. These findings suggest that experimental oral inoculation of white-tailed deer fawns may mimic all aspects of subclinical and clinical paratuberculosis.     

Failure to detect infection in fallow deer (Cervus dama) exposed to Theileria cervi from white-tailed deer

A frozen stabilate was produced from Theileria cervi sporozoites in salivary glands of adult Amblyomma americanum. The stabilate was inoculated into three fallow deer (Cervus dama) and two white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Following inoculation, the white-tailed deer developed parasitemias as determined by blood smear examination at 11 and 13 days postexposure. Repeat examination of blood from the three fallow deer for 30 days postexposure failed to reveal observable piro-plasms. These findings indicate that fallow deer are not as susceptible to the Theileria cervi found in white-tailed deer from North America. Thus, there are some questions regarding the taxonomic position of this organism.     

Experimental infection of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with Ehrlichia chaffeensis by different inoculation routes

The infection dynamics of the tick-transmitted organism Ehrlichia chaffeensis were investigated in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) using different routes of inoculation. Six deer were each inoculated with 5.4 x 10(6) DH82 cells infected with E. chaffeensis (Arkansas strain) by three different routes: intravenous (n = 2), subcutaneous (n = 2), and intradermal (n = 2). Two control deer were inoculated with uninfected cells. Infections were monitored for 54 days and were continued in one deer from each E. chaffeensis inoculated group for an additional 31 days. All deer inoculated with E. chaffeensis seroconverted (> or = 1: 64) and became 16S rDNA polymerase chain reaction and/or cell culture positive by post-inoculation day 15. There was no apparent (difference in susceptibility to infection between deer inoculated by different routes for the first 50 days based on detection of E. chaffeensis infection by PCR assay of blood or culture isolation. These results demonstrate infection of (deer by intradermal and subcutaneous routes for the first time.     

Monthly incidence of Theileria cervi and seroconversion to Babesia odocoilei in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Texas.

Monthly monitoring of fawns collected from an area in Texas endemic for Theileria cervi and Babesia odocoilei showed that transmission of T. cervi occurred during July and August, a time period consistent with the occurrence of Amblyomma americanum. Seroconversion to B. odocoilei occurred during October to December and possibly continued through January and February. The time of seroconversion was more suggestive of transmission of B. odocoilei by Ixodes scapularis than by Amblyomma americanum.     

Parasites and condition of coexisting populations of white-tailed and exotic deer in south-central Texas.

We examined the parasites and physical condition of coexisting white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), axis deer (Axis axis), fallow deer (Dama dama), and sika deer (Cervus nippon) on the YO Ranch (Kerr County, Texas, USA) during December 1982 to January 1984. White-tailed deer harbored 12 species of parasites. Exotic deer were infected with nine species of parasites. All parasites recovered from exotic deer and white-tailed deer have been reported from white-tailed deer. Exotic deer had higher condition ratings than white-tailed deer.     

Establishment of adult Parelaphostrongylus tenuis, patent infections, and acquired immunity after experimental infection of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus)

Experimental Parelaphostrongylus tenuis infections were established in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and an atypical host, red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus). Groups of deer were fed 10, 25, or 100 third-stage larvae (L3) of P. tenuis and received a single equivalent challenge exposure at varying intervals. Infections were monitored up to 6 yr in white-tailed deer and up to 2.8 yr in red deer. The prepatent period in white-tailed deer varied from 91 to 1,072 days (381 +/- 374) and in red deer from 105 to 358 days (167 +/- 77). Adult worms lived for up to 6 yr in white-tailed deer. Although most had patent infections until necropsy, latent periods were observed regardless of season. Adult worms lived for up to 2.8 yr in red deer, and patent infections persisted for 20-363 days (152 +/- 106). Patent infections were correlated with the presence of adult worms in blood vessels and sinuses of both deer species. Worms were restricted to the subdural space in all deer with latent and occult infections. Adult worm recovery in white-tailed deer fed 10 or 25 L3 corresponded to the mean intensities reported in natural infections of white-tailed deer Recovery from deer fed 100 L3 was not typical of natural infection intensities. Adult P. tenuis established in all groups of red deer, but neurologic disease was restricted to animals fed 100 L3. Acute neurologic disease was associated with subdural hemorrhage and occurred at 11 mo postinfection in 2 red deer. The absence of postchallenge patent periods and the persistence of occult infections indicated that challenge exposures did not establish. These data indicate that acquired immunity to P. tenuis was established by 6 mo postinfection in both white-tailed and red deer. Latent periods in white-tailed deer and latent infections in red deer reinforce the need for a reliable diagnostic assay.     

Serological evidence of bovine herpesvirus 1-related virus infection in the white-tailed deer population on Anticosti Island, Quebec

High white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population densities and the occurrence of harsh environmental conditions are present on Anticosti Island, located in the Gulf of Saint-Lawrence (Quebec, Canada). This island is the northernmost region of white-tailed deer distribution in northeastern North America. The aim of this work was to determine whether a herpesvirus serologically related to bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV1) may occur in a stressed white-tailed deer population. One hundred one deer sera were collected from apparently healthy animals during the hunting season from September to late November 1985. Fifty-three percent of tested deer were positive to the seroneutralization test using Colorado strain of BHV1 virus. Higher percentages of seropositivity were observed in animals of both sexes greater than 4-yr-old. Analysis of antibody titers in seropositive animals according to age suggests that BHV1-related viral infection is endemic in the Anticosti Island deer population. It is postulated that environmental stress may induce immunosuppression of certain infected and/or carrier animals in their population that shed virus for long periods of time.     

Susceptibility of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to experimental infection with epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus serotype 7

During the fall of 2006, in Israel, epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) serotype 7 caused an intense and widespread epizootic in domestic cattle that resulted in significant economic losses for the dairy industry. The susceptibility of potential North American vector and ruminant hosts to infection with EHDV-7 is not known but is essential to understanding the potential for establishment of this exotic orbivirus in North America if it were introduced. Our primary objective was to determine whether white-tailed deer (WTD; Odocoileus virginianus) are susceptible to infection with EHDV-7. Six, 8-mo-old WTD were experimentally infected with EHDV-7, and all became infected and exhibited varying degrees of clinical disease. Clinical signs, clinicopathologic abnormalities, and postmortem findings were consistent with previous reports of orbiviral hemorrhagic disease (HD) in this species. Four of six animals died or were euthanized because of the severity of disease, one on postinoculation day (PID) 5 and the remaining WTD on PID 7. All deer had detectable viremia on PID 3, which peaked on PID 5 or 6 and persisted for as long as PID 46 in one animal. Deer surviving the acute phase of the disease seroconverted by PID 10. Based on the 67% mortality rate we observed, this strain of EHDV-7 is virulent in WTD, reaffirming their role as a sentinel species for the detection of endemic and nonendemic EHDV. Further, the observed disease was indistinguishable from previous reports of disease caused by North American EHDV and bluetongue virus serotypes, highlighting the importance of serotype-specific diagnostics during suspected HD outbreaks.     

Seasonal relationships of thyroid, sexual and adrenocortical hormones to nutritional parameters and climatic factors in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) of south Texas

Annual cycles of serum testosterone (T), estradiol 17-beta (E), thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3) and cortisol (C) and their relationship with dry matter intake (DMI), ambient temperature and daylength (DL) were examined in four male and four female white-tailed deer. Serum T in bucks correlated (P less than 0.05) with DMI during the rut. In does, E correlated (P less than 0.05) with DMI and body wt. Both serum T and E were DL and temperature dependent. Serum T4 in bucks correlated (P less than 0.05) with body wt and increasing temperature while T3 correlated (P less than 0.05) with DMI and body wt. In does, T4 was significantly (P less than 0.05) correlated with DMI and body wt, while T3 was not. Serum C levels were not correlated (P greater than 0.05) with either DMI or body wt. It appears that serum T4 and T3 in bucks and T4 in does offer the best year-round indicators of nutritional stress in deer. Male DMI was temperature and DL dependent. In does, only a short-term effect on DMI was found. After the breeding season in bucks, and throughout the year in does, DL and temperature may control intake via the thyroid hormones.