Unterartenfrage Persischer Leoparden geklärt

The Studbook for the Persian Leopard, Panthera pardus saxicolor, was analyzed. The whole population derives from a few founder animals, imported in the midth fifties from Iran and in the late sixties from Afghanistan. To avoid inbreeding later on the Iranian and the Afghan lines were mixed. A female imported in 1968 from Kabul to Cologne is represented in each of the more than 100 animals living today.This study deals with the question of subspecies of leopards in Afghanistan. Out of the 27 subspecies described four are believed to exist in Afghanistan. However, according to a molecular-biological revision of the species there is only one subspecies in Afghanistan, Panthera pardus saxicolor. To clarify the subspecies question various measures of furs have been taken in the bazars. The results revealed that the leopards in Afghanistan are the biggest of its species. However a further differentiation according to the area of origin within the country was not possible. Also the traditional differentiation on the basis of colours and patterns on the furs was not possible.In contrast to the molecular-biological investigations published, not only samples of zoo animals were available in this study but also samples from the wild. The results confirm that almost all leopards from Afghanistan and Iran belong to one and the same subspecies. Only in the most eastern part of Afghanistan, the Indian leopard, Panthera pardus fusca, can be found.Mixing the two lines subsequently is justified by the results of this study. Recently acquired animals from the Caucasus, however, should be tested genetically before integrating them into the zoo population.     

Induction of ovulation and successful artificial insemination in a Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor)

Techniques of artificial insemination have not been readily applied to zoo animals. The nonsurgical approach has been unsuccessful in nondomestic felids until the present study where pregnancy was achieved in a Persian leopard. The demonstration of this technique should encourage renewed attempts to artificially inseminate nondomestic felids.     

Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in zoo animals in selected zoos in the midwestern United States

Toxoplasma gondii infections in zoo animals are of interest because many captive animals die of clinical toxoplasmosis and because of the potential risk of exposure of children and elderly to T. gondii oocysts excreted by cats in the zoos. Seroprevalence of T. gondii antibodies in wild zoo felids, highly susceptible zoo species, and feral cats from 8 zoos of the midwestern United States was determined by using the modified agglutination test (MAT). A titer of 1:25 was considered indicative of T. gondii exposure. Among wild felids, antibodies to T. gondii were found in 6 (27.3%) of 22 cheetahs (Acynonyx jubatus jubatus), 2 of 4 African lynx (Caracal caracal), 1 of 7 clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa), 1 of 5 Pallas cats (Otocolobus manul), 12 (54.5%) of 22 African lions (Panthera leo), 1 of 1 jaguar (Panthera onca), 1 of 1 Amur leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis), 1 of 1 Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor), 5 (27.8%) of 18 Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica), 1 of 4 fishing cats (Prionailurus viverrinus), 3 of 6 pumas (Puma concolor), 2 of 2 Texas pumas (Puma concolor stanleyana), and 5 (35.7%) of 14 snow leopards (Uncia uncia). Antibodies were found in 10 of 34 feral domestic cats (Felis domesticus) trapped in 3 zoos. Toxoplasma gondii oocysts were not found in any of the 78 fecal samples from wild and domestic cats. Among the macropods, antibodies were detected in 1 of 3 Dama wallabies (Macropus eugenii), 1 of 1 western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus), 1 of 2 wallaroos (Macropus robustus), 6 of 8 Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus), 21 (61.8%) of 34 red kangaroos (Macropus rufus), and 1 of 1 dusky pademelon (Thylogale brunii). Among prosimians, antibodies were detected in 1 of 3 blue-eyed black lemurs (Eulemur macaco flavifrons), 1 of 21 ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), 2 of 9 red-ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata rubra), and 2 of 4 black- and white-ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata). Among the avian species tested, 2 of 3 bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) were seropositive. Among 7 possible risk factors, sex, freezing meat temperature (above -13 C vs. below -13 C), washing vegetables thoroughly, frequency of feral cat sightings on zoo grounds (occasionally vs. frequently), frequency of feral cat control programs, capability of feral cats to enter hay/grain barn, and type of animal exhibit, exhibiting animals in open enclosures was the only factor identified as a significant risk (OR 3.22, P = 0.00).     

Applying molecular genetic tools to the conservation and action plan for the critically endangered Far Eastern leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis)

A role for molecular genetic approaches in conservation of endangered taxa is now commonly recognized. Because conservation genetic analyses provide essential insights on taxonomic status, recent evolutionary history and current health of endangered taxa, they are considered in nearly all conservation programs. Genetic analyses of the critically endangered Far Eastern, or Amur leopard, Panthera pardus orientalis, have been done recently to address all of these questions and develop strategies for survival of the leopard in the wild. The genetic status and implication for conservation management of the Far Eastern leopard subspecies are discussed.     

RAPD marker estimation of genetic structure among isolated northern leopard frog populations in the south-western USA

Amphibians in the south-western United States are currently experiencing population declines. Causal explanations for these population changes as well as the implementation of sound management practices requires an understanding of the genetic structure of natural amphibian populations. To this end, we estimated genetic differences within and among seven isolated populations of northern leopard frogs, Rana pipiens , from Arizona and southern Utah using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analyses. Fourteen arbitrarily designed primers detected 38 polymorphic loci in 85 individual frogs. Three types of population structure were observed in this study. (i) Two populations showed low genetic diversity ( D = 0.10 and 0.04) and may have been established by relatively recent events. (ii) Two were not genetically distinct and exhibited a high degree of within-population diversity ( D = 0.35). The possibility of gene flow between these populations is high due to their geographical proximity and their shared genetic structure. (iii) Three populations were genetically distinct from each other and the other populations, and exhibited intermediate within-population variation ( D = 0.19, 0.17, 0.14). Genetic distances among the seven populations ranged from 0.00 to 0.20, suggesting that some of these leopard frog populations are genetically distinct. Although based on relatively small samples, these data suggest that leopard frog populations in the south-west are likely to represent unique genetic entities worthy of conservation. The management implications of these results are that isolated leopard frog populations should be evaluated on an individual basis to best preserve them.     

Conservation genetics of the Far Eastern leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis)

The Far Eastern or Amur leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) survives today as a tiny relict population of 25-40 individuals in the Russian Far East. The population descends from a 19th-century northeastern Asian subspecies whose range extended over southeastern Russia, the Korean peninsula, and northeastern China. A molecular genetic survey of nuclear microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence variation validates subspecies distinctiveness but also reveals a markedly reduced level of genetic variation. The amount of genetic diversity measured is the lowest among leopard subspecies and is comparable to the genetically depleted Florida panther and Asiatic lion populations. When considered in the context of nonphysiological perils that threaten small populations (e.g., chance mortality, poaching, climatic extremes, and infectious disease), the genetic and demographic data indicate a critically diminished wild population under severe threat of extinction. An established captive population of P. p. orientalis displays much higher diversity than the wild population sample, but nearly all captive individuals are derived from a history of genetic admixture with the adjacent Chinese subspecies, P. p. japonensis. The conservation management implications of potential restoration/augmentation of the wild population with immigrants from the captive population are discussed.     

Phylogenetics, genome diversity and origin of modern leopard, Panthera pardus

Leopards, Panthera pardus, are widely distributed across southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The extent and phylogeographic patterns of molecular genetic diversity were addressed in a survey of 77 leopards from known geographical locales representing 13 of the 27 classical trinomial subspecies. Phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences (727 bp of NADH5 and control region) and 25 polymorphic microsatellite loci revealed abundant diversity that could be partitioned into a minimum of nine discrete populations, tentatively named here as revised subspecies: P. pardus pardus, P. p. nimr, P. p. saxicolor, P. p. fusca, P. p. kotiya, P. p. delacouri, P. p. japonensis, P. p. orientalis and P. p. melas. However, because of limited sampling of African populations, this may be an underestimate of modern phylogeographic population structure. Combined phylogeographic and population diversity estimates support an origin for modern leopard lineages 470,000-825,000 years ago in Africa followed by their migration into and across Asia more recently (170,000-300,000 years ago). Recent demographic reductions likely have led to genetic impoverishment in P. p. orientalis and in the island subspecies P. p. kotiya.     

Distribution and human‐caused mortality of Persian leopards Panthera pardus saxicolor in Iran,based on unpublished data and Farsi gray literature

Gray literature and data from unpublished sources can provide important scientific information that has not been published scientifically. The Persian leopard (hereafter leopard) Panthera pardus saxicolor is classed as endangered on the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and also is one of the least‐studied subspecies of leopard. It occurs in the Caucasus and Central and Southwest Asia. Iran contains more than 75% of the leopard's extant range, and the leopard population in this country serves as a source for neighboring countries. In this study, we determined the distribution and human‐caused mortality of leopards in Iran, by reviewing unpublished data and Farsi gray literature (which includes government reports) between 1 January 2010 and 30 December 2018. We created the most recent distribution map of the leopard in Iran. Our data display that human‐caused mortality of leopard in Iran mostly includes poaching and intentional poisoning, and roadkill.     

Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the Vietnamese sika deer (Cervus nippon pseudaxis)

The Vietnamese sika deer (Cervus nippon pseudaxis) is an endangered subspecies of economic and traditional value in Vietnam. Most living individuals are held in traditional farms in central Vietnam, others being found in zoos around the world. Here we study the neutral genetic diversity and population structure of this subspecies using nine microsatellite loci in order to evaluate the consequences of the limited number of individuals from which this population was initiated and of the breeding practices (i.e., possible inbreeding). Two hundred individuals were sampled from several villages. Our data show both evidence for limited local inbreeding and isolation by distance with a mean F(ST) value of 0.02 between villages. This suggests that exchange of animals occurs at a local scale, at a rate such that highly inbred mating is avoided. However, the genetic diversity, with an expected heterozygosity (H(e)) of 0.60 and mean number of alleles (k) of 5.7, was not significantly larger than that estimated from zoo populations of much smaller census size (17 animals sampled; H(e) = 0.65, k = 4.11). Our results also suggest that the Vietnamese population might have experienced a slight bottleneck. However, this population is sufficiently variable to constitute a source of individuals for reintroduction in the wild in Vietnam.     

Noninvasive genetic analyses for estimating population size and genetic diversity of the remaining Far Eastern leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) population

Understanding and monitoring the population status of endangered species is vital for developing appropriate management interventions. We used noninvasive genetic analyses to obtain ecological and genetic data on the last remaining Far Eastern leopard population in the world. During seven winters from 2000–2001 to 2007–2008, we collected feces, hair, and saliva from most of the leopard habitat. Of the 239 leopard samples collected during the study period, 155 were successfully genotyped at 13 microsatellite loci and 37 individuals (18 males and 19 females) were identified. Population size estimates based on the Capwire model were 28 (95 % CI 19–38) in 2002–03 and 26 (95 % CI 13–33) in 2007–2008. The leopard population had a low level of genetic diversity (expected and observed heterozygosity = 0.43; average number of alleles per locus = 2.62), and effective population size was estimated to be low (N _e = 7–16) by two genetic-based methods. We observed little improvement in the genetic diversity during the study period and did find an indication of allele loss compared with individuals from the mid-1990s, suggesting that the remaining population will continue to suffer loss of genetic diversity. Given the small population size and the low genetic diversity, with little expectation of replenishment of the genetic variation by natural immigration, successful expansion of available habitat and development of a second population based on captive individuals may be crucial for persistence of this leopard subspecies in the wild.     

Interspecies Transmission of Feline Immunodeficiency Virus from the Domestic Cat to the Tsushima Cat (Felis bengalensis euptilura) in the Wild

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) was isolated from a wild-caught Tsushima cat (Felis bengalensis euptilura), an endangered Japanese nondomestic subspecies of leopard cat (F. bengalensis). Phylogenetic analysis of the env gene sequences indicated that the FIV from the Tsushima cat belonged to a cluster of subtype D FIVs from domestic cats. FIVs from both the Tsushima cat and the domestic cat showed similar levels of replication and cytopathicity in lymphoid cell lines derived from these two species. The results indicated the occurrence of interspecies transmission of FIV from the domestic cat to the Tsushima cat in the wild.     

Optimizing the genetic management of reintroduction projects: genetic population structure of the captive Northern Bald Ibis population

Many threatened species are bred in captivity for conservation purposes and some of these programmes aim at future reintroduction. The Northern Bald Ibis, Geronticus eremita, is a Critically Endangered bird species, with recently only one population remaining in the wild (Morocco, Souss Massa region). During the last two decades, two breeding programs for reintroduction have been started (in Austria and Spain). As the genetic constitution of the founding population can have strong effects on reintroduction success, we studied the genetic diversity of the two source populations for reintroduction (‘Waldrappteam’ and ‘Proyecto eremita’) as well as the European zoo population (all individuals held ex situ) by genotyping 642 individuals at 15 microsatellite loci. To test the hypothesis that the wild population in Morocco and the extinct wild population in the Middle East belong to different evolutionary significant units, we sequenced two mitochondrial DNA fragments. Our results show that the European zoo population is genetically highly structured, reflecting separate breeding lines. Genetic diversity was highest in the historic samples from the wild eastern population. DNA sequencing revealed only a single substitution distinguishing the wild eastern and wild western population. Contrary to that, the microsatellite analysis showed a clear differentiation between them. This suggests that genetic differentiation between the two populations is recent and does not confirm the existence of two evolutionary significant units. The European zoo population appears to be vital and suitable for reintroduction, but the management of the European zoo population and the two source populations for reintroductions can be optimized to reach a higher level of admixture.     

Genetic consequences of Pleistocene fragmentation: Isolation, drift, and loss of diversity in rock iguanas (Cyclura)

Pleistocene fragmentation of the Great BahamaBank resulted in one large and several smallpopulations of rock iguanas (Cycluracychlura). We explore patterns of geneticvariation within and among these islandpopulations using mitochondrial sequence data(partial ND4 to tRNA^Leu) in combinationwith eight polymorphic microsatellite loci (2to 10 alleles). Genetic data support twophylogeographically distinct groups, AndrosIsland and the Exuma cays. This resultconflicts with current subspecific taxonomy inwhich three subspecies are described. Analysesof allelic data indicate that most islandpopulations are currently demographicallyindependent. Pairwise Fst values between eightisland populations range from 0.18 to 0.63, and6 of 135 individuals are misassigned in anassignment test. Population-genetic diversityis characterized using standard measures suchas number of alleles and heterozygosity (H) inaddition to a normalized Shannon-Weaver indexof diversity (D). We find genetic diversity inthe Andros Island population comparable to thatin other non-piscine animals (avg. # ofalleles = 5, avg. H = 0.56, avg. D = 0.66) while inthe Exuma cays populations these measures aremuch lower (avg. # of alleles = 2.75–1.625, avg.H = 0.43–0.17, avg. D = 0.45–0.18). These dataare used to discuss conservation managementstrategies, including prioritization andtranslocation.     

Population dynamics of pedigree leopards,Panthera pardus ssp,in captivity

The demographic history of 4 races or subspecies of leopard, Panthera pardus, was reviewed from international studbook records dating back to 1953. The Chinese leopard has been the most common pedigree race maintained in captivity, a factor linked to the length of time (29 years) this subspecies has been in captivity. The relative youth of the wild-born founders also helped them to adjust to captivity as well as live long reproductive lives. Today, however, this race is suffering from the ill effects of inbreeding due to the small founder size. This condition appears to be correctable now that additional specimens have been located. Persian leopards have a larger founder size than the former race, but some of their ancestors were older animals at the time of acquisition. Because of this, their potential fecundity was probably depressed from psychological problems related to adjustment and a shorter life span in captivity. Two founding females experienced pelvic deformities while young, and few of their cubs survived because they all had to be delivered via caesarian section. This procedure also shortened the reproductive life of the females involved because the owning zoos refrained from breeding the animals in the leopards' later years. Captive leopards appear to live longer than their wild counterparts, although precise data on wild populations is not available. In captivity many reach 12–15 years old, and exceptional individuals of several races have lived 20 years. Most captive-born leopards begin breeding when they are 3 years old and continue until they are 8–10 years old. Reproduction in females usually ceases at 12–14 years, although males have a longer reproductive life, with several successfully breeding when 19–20 years old.     

Habitat suitability and connectivity implications for the conservation of the Persian leopard along the Iran–Iraq border

Habitat fragmentation has major negative impacts on wildlife populations, and the connectivity could reduce these negative impacts. This study was conducted to assess habitat suitability and structural connectivity of the Persian leopard along the Iran–Iraq border (i.e., the Zagros Mountains) and compare the situation of identified core habitats and connectivity with existing conservation areas (CAs). An ensemble modeling approach resulting from five models was used to predict habitat suitability. To identify core habitats and corridors along the Iran–Iraq border, factorial least‐cost path analyses were applied. The results revealed that topographic roughness, distance to CAs, annual precipitation, vegetation/cropland density, and distance to rivers were the most influential variables for predicting the occurrence of the Persian leopard in the study area. By an estimated dispersal distance of 82 km (suggested by previous studies), three core habitats were identified (two cores in Iran and one core in Iraq). The largest cores were located in the south and the center of the study area, which had the highest connectivity priorities. The connectivity from these cores was maintained to the core within the Iraqi side. Only about one‐fifth of detected core habitats and relative corridors were protected by CAs in the study area. Detected core habitats and connectivity areas in this study could be an appropriate road map to accomplish the CAs network along the Iran–Iraq border regarding Persian leopard conservation. Establishing transboundary CAs, particularly in the core habitat located in the center of the study area, is strongly recommended to conserve existing large carnivores, including the Persian leopard.     

Genetic diversity in Delphinium variegatum (Ranunculaceae): a comparison of two insular endemic subspecies and their widespread mainland relative

Delphinium variegatum is subdivided into three subspecies: D. v. variegatum is widespread in central and northern California, while D. v. kinkiense (an endangered taxon) and D. v. thornei are endemic to San Clemente Island off the coast of southern California. Electrophoretic data for 19 loci were collected from 7 populations of the mainland subspecies and all 24 known populations of the two insular endemic subspecies. Populations of the widespread mainland subspecies have more polymorphic loci (33.6% vs. 24.5%) and more alleles per polymorphic locus (2.61 vs. 2.15) than the insular endemic subspecies. However, observed heterozygosities are lower in the mainland subspecies (0.041 vs. 0.071), presumably due to lower levels of outcrossing (t = 0.464 vs. 0.895). Expected heterozygosities are similar (0.064 vs. 0.074) due to lower alternative allele frequencies in populations of the mainland subspecies (mean q = 0.075 vs. 0.190). Populations of the two insular subspecies are almost equivalent genetically (mean I = 0.997) regardless of taxonomic designation or geographic location. In contrast, one of the mainland populations is genetically well differentiated from the others. If this exceptional population is excluded, the mainland subspecies partitions genetic diversity similarly to the island subspecies, with most variation being found within populations (G(ST) = 0.073 vs. 0.030).     

Mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms in the two subspecies of Drosophila sulfurigaster: relationship between geographic structure of population and nucleotide diversity.

Recent empirical and theoretical studies on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation in higher animals have suggested that the extent of mtDNA polymorphism is largely affected by spatial population subdivision. To examine this we studied mtDNA polymorphism in two subspecies of Drosophila sulfurigaster: D. s. albostrigata and D. s. bilimbata. Drosophila sulfurigaster albostrigata is mainly distributed on the mainland of Southeast Asia. In contrast, D. s. bilimbata forms discontinuous populations on many islands scattered in the Pacific Ocean. Because of the difference in their distribution patterns, the two subspecies are thought to be different in the extent of spatial population subdivision. mtDNA was isolated from greater than 50 isofemale strains for each subspecies and were analyzed by eight restriction endonucleases. Nucleotide diversity within a population was higher in D. s. albostrigata than in D. s. bilimbata. However, haplotype diversity was 1.6 times greater in D. s. bilimbata (0.85) than in D. s. albostrigata (0.53). The large difference in overall heterogeneity was attributed to the difference in interpopulational nucleotide diversity. For the two subspecies the proportion of interpopulational gene diversity in a subdivided population was calculated to be 0.54 in D. s. bilimbata and 0.40 in D. s. albostrigata. These observations indicate that spatial population subdivision is a major factor in determining mtDNA polymorphism in these subspecies. The extent of mtDNA divergence between the subspecies was very high. The average nucleotide divergence between them was 7.6%, which is almost the interspecific level reported for other Drosophila species. The cause of the high degree of mtDNA divergence is discussed.