The components of life-history traits variation in Daphnia magna population

The variation of six growth and reproduction traits in the parthenogenetic clones of Daphnia magna and its relationships with the genotypes at 5 isozyme loci were studied under controlled conditions at three food concentrations. A significant genetic component of age at maturity, growth rate and fecundity variation was detected. Nested ANOVA revealed the influences of the genotypes of the isozyme loci, that are more pronounced at the high food concentration. In some cases the genotype-environment interactions were found.The variation of body length at 6 days and total number of offspring includes a significant heterozygosity — environment interaction. The most heterozygous clones show the least differences in life history traits between food conditions.Life-history traits heritability, genotype-environment interactions and different reproductive strategies of the clones are discussed.     

The relationship between temperature,competition and the potential for colonization of a subtropical pond by Daphnia magna

The role that temperature plays in excluding large daphnid species from subtropical and tropical ponds, and competitive relationships between Daphnia laevis and Daphnia magna, are explored. D. magna, a large temperate species is probably not excluded from subtropical or tropical systems by elevated temperatures. However, D. magna was a poorer competitor, under a restricted set of laboratory conditions, than D. laevis, the only pond dwelling daphnid in subtropical Florida. Competition is proposed as one mechanism that may limit the number of daphnid species in subtropical and tropical ponds and lakes. Reduced environmental fluctuations in subtropical and tropical systems (compared with temperate systems) may allow zooplankton populations to reach an environmental carrying capacity where competition limits the number of similar, coexisting species in a habitat.     

Large Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium deviations in the Daphnia longispina of Lake El Tobar

The population structure of Daphnia longispina in Lake El Tobar, Spain was studied by measuring variation at the aldehyde oxidase (AO), phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI) and phosphoglucose mutase (PGM) loci in each of 1337 individuals from four collections. In 9 of the 12 comparisons between observed allele frequencies and those expected by Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium there was an excess of heterozygotes. We found 27 of the potential number of 54 composite electromorphs (clones) based on the three allozymes. Clone diversities were rather high in all collections. Three clones reached frequencies of over 25% and different clones were dominant in each of the four collections. Strong temporal variation was found in the genetic structure of this Daphnia population. This variation was driven by changes in the relative frequencies of the component clones in the lake rather than by a recruitment of novel clones into the population.We conclude with a consideration of the role of models relating allele and genotype frequencies in populations of cyclical parthenogens. Because the breeding system of these populations infrequently involves recombination between clones, models such as the Hardy-Weinberg have limited value in providing meaningful measures of population structure.     

Chaoborus predation and the function of phenotypic variation in Daphnia

To investigate the role of helmet formation in defense against predation, laboratory experiments were used to analyze the effects of morphological changes in Daphnia on susceptibility to Chaoborus predation. Behavioral observations of Chaoborus preying on helmeted and non-helmeted Daphnia suggest pre-contact advantages for helmeted prey but post-contact advantages for non-helmeted prey. Helmeted Daphnia are better at evading capture by Chaoborus but may also be more easily handled by the predator. Swimming behavior of the prey, which is influenced by the presence of a tailspine, may affect Chaoborus strike distance. These results re-emphasize the potential hydromechanical importance of body shape changes in defense against predation.     

Vertical distributions of zooplankton and population dynamics of Daphnia in a meromictic lake

Vertical distributions of zooplankton were studied in relation to profiles of temperature, oxygen and chlorophyll a in Roi Lake, a small meromictic lake in central Alberta. Zooplankton were distributed fairly evenly through the oxygenated part of the water column in early summer, but a gradual descent of several species became evident in June. The vertical distribution of chlorophyll was dominated by a huge peak at the 8- to 9-m-deep chemocline. the location of a plate of photosynthetic sulfur bacteria. Ambient concentration of chlorophyll was a poor predictor of the numbers of zooplankton and the fecundity of Daphnia pulicaria at different depths, and per capita birth rates of Daphnia were usually highest in the surface waters. The reproductively disadvantageous restriction of daphnids to deep water by late summer and their catastrophic decline in the face of high ambient concentrations of chlorophyll suggest that factors other than temperature and food supply are important in influencing the dynamics and distribution of zooplankton in this lake.     

The systematics of Australian Daphnia (Cladocera: Daphniidae). Electrophoretic analyses of the Daphnia carinata complex

Genetic variation at eleven allozyme loci was scored in approximately 1600 individual Daphnia. The samples included representatives of all nine taxa described from the D. carinata complex in Australia. Principal coordinates and cluster analyses revealed only three groups of genotypes within the complex, corresponding to the taxa D. cephalata, D. nivalis, and a conglomerate of all other taxa described from the complex, D. carinata (sensu lato). These results are consistent with recent multivariate morphological analyses of the complex.     

An in situ test of the effects of food quality on Daphnia population growth

The temporal variation of the surface deposit feeders in a mudflat of Chuwei Mangrove Forest showed a significant input of populations from the recruitments in the spring. The chemical analysis of the sediment in the top 8 cm showed that the sedimentary organic content had a subsurface maximum value in the deeper layer in most cases. Most of the temporal variations in the organic carbon and nitrogen contents occurred in the top few centimeters. The high C:N ratio and low organic nitrogen content in the sediment suggests the supply of carbon (or energy) to the benthos was low. The increase of labile protein content in the deep layer might be due to the downcore transport of sediment nutrients by the bioturbation. Laboratory growth experiment suggests that some the chemical characters examined in this study may represent the sediment nutrients to the animals.     

Elemental composition of two coexisting Daphnia species during the seasonal course of population development in Lake Constance

Summary In 1986 and 1987 the seasonal course of population density, life history traits and biomass composition (CHN-elemental and ash) of two coexisting Daphnia species from L. Constance (Überlinger See) were studied. The two daphnids are morphologically similar, but demonstrate different seasonal variation of behaviour (i.e. diurnal vertical migration). With the exception of nitrogen content, the mean biomass composition of adults and that of eggs were significantly different: the dry biomass of eggs (adults) contained on average 55.6 (46.1) % C, 7.9 (6.5) % H, 9.7 (9.7) % N, and 10.0 (23.8) % ash. These values were similar to those of other daphnids; it may be concluded that the average daphnid composition is not species specific, but is determined mainly by the position in the life cycle and by the nutritional state of the animal. A distinct seasonal variation in the elemental composition of the biomass of adult daphnids was observed. It related significantly to the concentration of food, as indicated by the epilimnetic chlorophyll-a concentrations and by Secchi depth. From the amplitude of seasonal variation of elemental composition and from the shape of relationships between the elemental composition of daphnids and their food, it can be concluded that in summer the non-migrating D. galeata lives under stronger food limitation than the migrating H. hyalina. In spring, there were no differences in the biomass composition of either species. In summer, the adult fcmales of D. galeata contained significantly less carbon, and hydrogen than those of D. hyalina. In most parameters of biomass (i.e. biomass composition of adults) and of life history (i.e. clutch size, mean adult weight), D. galeata displayed higher coefficients of variation. A tendency in D. galeata to have peaks of population development carlier in the season and in D. hyalina to have them towards autumn was observed. These contrasting responses of the populations development, the seasonal variability of the biomass composition seem to support the view of Geller (1986) who called D. galeata and D. hyalina exploitative and conservative strategists respectively.This research was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsge-meinschaft within the Sonderforschungsbereich Cycling of Matter in Lake Constance (SFB 248), and by scholarship to R.B. from the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD)     

Life history variation among low-arctic clones of obligately parthenogenetic Daphnia pulex: a diploid-polyploid complex

Summary Laboratory life table experiments were conducted using nine clones of obligately parthenogenetic Daphnia pulex that were collected from a site in the Canadian low-arctic. Two of the nine clones were diploids, while the other seven clones were polyploids. Significant clonal differences in age at first reproduction, size at first reproduction, number of offspring in each of the first three broods, offsrring sizes for the first two broods, and intrinsic rates of natural increase were detected. Differences in life histories were evident between polyploids and diploids. Generally, polyploid clones reached maturity at later ages, matured at larger sizes, produced smaller broods, and larger offspring than the diploid clones. The data are discussed in reference to potential biotic (i.e. invertebrate predation) and abiotic factors (i.e. physicochemical gradients) that may influence life history variation in this clonal assemblage.     

Microsporidiosis in a Daphnia pulex population

The impact of parasitism by Thelohania sp., an intracellular microsporidian, on Daphnia pulex inhabiting a vernal pond was studied for three years. Three issues were considered: the distribution of parasites among hosts, the effect of parasites on individuals, and the impact of parasitism on population growth. Each year, Thelohania infected members of at least half of the generations of Daphnia produced in the pond. When the frequency of infection was low, parasites were found only in large adults. As infection frequency increased, parasitism spread downward through host size classes. However, parasites were rarely found in juveniles. Parasitism reduced clutch size drastically, increased mortality to a variable extent, had little impact on egg size or on per instar growth and none on molt frequency. Interaction with other stresses, such as food limitation, exacerbated some of these effects. Parasitism reduced instantaneous birth rate much more than it elevated instantaneous death rate. Population growth was reduced significantly but it is unlikely that Thelohania alone regulates the growth of this Daphnia population.     

Mechanisms of the filtering area adaptation in Daphnia

The changes of selected parameters of the filtering comb of the third thoracic limb were studied in a natural population of Daphnia pulicaria Forbes, as well as in experimental enclosures and in lab cultures, including individual life history. Two hypotheses were tested: 1. either these changes are related to the succession of clones coexisting within one population, or 2. the size of the filtering area changes gradually as an individual adaptation during the moulting. No evidence supporting the clonal hypothesis was found. On the contrary, the adaptability of the filtering comb is the same in a natural population as it is in a clone and in individuals.     

Chaoborus and fish-mediated influences on Daphnia longispina population structure,dynamics and life history strategies

Summary This study examined the long term effects of predation by larvae of the midge Chaoborus and simulated fish predation on experimental Daphnia longispina populations. Chaoborus predation, relative to fish predation, led to populations composed of larger individuals as a whole, larger egg-bearing individuals, and a larger primiparous instar. Daphnia retained helmets beyond the first instar in response to the presence of Chaoborus. Both types of predation, relative to predator-free controls, reduced prey population size and rates of increase, but increased population death rates. The reduction in population size due to predation led to increased resource availability for individuals remaining in the populations and increased individual fecundity in the predation treatments. The differences noted between the Chaoborus, fish, and control treatments increased with predation intensity.     

Genetic versus environmental influence on pigment variation in the ephippia of Daphnia pulicaria

1. The dormant eggs of Daphnia (Crustacea: cladocera) are encased in a protective, chitonous casing known as an ephippium. Ephippia are pigmented with melanin, and the degree of pigmentation ranges from transparent to opaque. Variation in pigmentation exists within and across populations and species, raising questions about the factors that influence the natural distribution of pigmentation. 2. We used image analysis to quantify pigmentation in ephippial casings of Daphnia pulicaria that were produced both in the field and in the laboratory. The percentage of the surface area of ephippia that is darkly pigmented ranged from 0.5 to 99.5%. The range, mean and variance of ephippial pigmentation varied across our 11 study lakes. 3. Laboratory experiments compared clonal variation (five clones/lake) and population variation (five lakes) at three temperatures (15 °C, 20 °C and 25 °C). The degree of pigment variation between clones was much greater than pigment variation between temperatures, indicating that there is a genetic component to pigmentation in the ephippia which is stronger than the effect of temperature. 4. Comparisons of pigment levels and lake characteristics were used to identify physical and biological factors associated with ephippial pigmentation. Investment in ephippial production was the strongest predictor with darker ephippia occurring more often in lakes with the highest ephippial production.     

A note about Daphnia in Venezuelan waterbodies

After examining numerous water samples of 19 lakes and reservoirs in Venezuela, only two species of Daphnia were found: D. laevis (in colder, high altitude lakes) and D. gessneri. This observation supports the theory of the scarcity of Daphnia species in tropical inland waters.     

Intersex and male development in Daphnia magna

Sex induction is environmentally stimulated in Daphnia and involves a cue-dependent response for sex determination. Somatic growth was shown to be similar in males and females during juvenile instars, but divergent due to a reduction in male somatic growth, at about the time that females produce ovaries. At this time, males appeared morphologically adult with respect to secondary sex characteristics. Intersex was rare and is unlikely to be important in natural populations. Intersex could be induced in both sexes, and observed more frequently after longer exposure to high temperature, or in the second generation following a temperature change. This indicates an impact on the ability of mothers to determine the sex of the offspring. It may be possible to use intersex characteristics for manipulative investigation of sex-determination mechanisms in Daphnia. Although sex-determination is initiated before birth, intersex occurrence suggests that development of male characters requires an additional process, probably involving hormone activity, during juvenile development and maturation.     

Aliesterase- (Ali-E) activity in Daphnia magna straus as a parameter for exposure to parathion

In vivo exposure of Daphnia magna Straus to parathion in concentrations from 0.05 to 5 µg/l resulted in a concentration-dependent decrease in aliesterase activity of the homogenate of the animals. Decrease in this activity after 48 hours of exposure was maximal for concentrations > 1.5 µg/l and amounted to about 90% of the activity of the blank.     

The detection of spatial variation in widespread marine species: methods and bias in the analysis of population structure in the crown of thorns starfish (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)

The basic assumptions that widespread marine species should show little spatial variation in genetic structure, given their high potential for dispersal on ocean currents, is being questioned. This has taken some time because there are few studies of widespread marine species over oceanic scales, few data sets that have the high density of sampling required for the detection of fine population structure, and there is little incentive to look further if initial analyses suggest the expected result. The interpretation of the population genetic structure of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) has been found to vary considerably depending on the sample set included in the analyses and on the method of analysis used. Scatter plots of genetic distance or , and spatial autocorrelation approaches gave markedly different results ranging from no structure to isolation by distance. Only visual examination of maps of patterns of variation in allele variation first detected that crown-of-thorns starfish occupy large regions with little between population differentiation, but between which there are markedly higher levels of differentiation. These findings highlight the care required in interpreting population structure, particularly where there are few sample points. Many marine species may have population structures where sharp genetic disjunctions, not associated with any obvious environmental boundaries, separate regions of relative genetic homogeneity. Such population structures are very different from those traditionally assumed and are not yet understood. Further advances in understanding the genetic structure of marine species will demand an iterative approach where a greater number of samples are collected over particular regions identified by earlier interpretations.     

The Daphnia bioassay: a critique

Daphnia magna is used widely as a standard ecotoxicological indicator organism, and protocols exist for its use in assessing the toxicity of substances under acute and chronic experimental conditions. Problems exist in repeatability of such bioassays between laboratories. Sources of variation are identified using a simple quantitative genetics model. Presenting specific examples, we conclude that these problems are tractable, but only if the genotype and culture conditions prior to and during tests are strictly controlled.     

Competition in natural populations of Daphnia

I investigated the competitive relationships between two species of Daphnia, D. galeata and D. cucullata, and their interspecific hybrid. The term hemispecific competition was introduced to describe competition between parental species and hybrids. In eutrophic Tjeukemeer both parental species were found to compete with the hybrid, whereas competition between D. galeata and D. cucullata seemed limited. Although the effect of competition on life history traits of daphnids may be profound, the influence of the competitors on the seasonal dynamics of the Daphnia species seems limited.