Water source partitioning among trees growing on shallow karst soils in a seasonally dry tropical climate

The sources of water used by woody vegetation growing on karst soils in seasonally dry tropical regions are little known. In northern Yucatan (Mexico), trees withstand 4–6 months of annual drought in spite of the small water storage capacity of the shallow karst soil. We hypothesized that adult evergreen trees in Yucatan tap the aquifer for a reliable supply of water during the prolonged dry season. The naturally occurring concentration gradients in oxygen and hydrogen stable isotopes in soil, bedrock, groundwater and plant stem water were used to determine the sources of water used by native evergreen and drought-deciduous tree species. While the trees studied grew over a permanent water table (9–20 m depth), pit excavation showed that roots were largely restricted to the upper 2 m of the soil/bedrock profile. At the peak of the dry season, the δ¹⁸O signatures of potential water sources for the vegetation ranged from 4.1 ± 1.1‰ in topsoil to −4.3 ± 0.1‰ in groundwater. The δ¹⁸O values of tree stem water ranged from −2.8 ± 0.3‰ in Talisia olivaeformis to 0.8 ± 1‰ in Ficus cotinifolia, demonstrating vertical partitioning of soil/bedrock water among tree species. Stem water δ¹⁸O values were significantly different from that of groundwater for all the tree species investigated. Stem water samples plotted to the right of the meteoric water line, indicating utilization of water sources subject to evaporative isotopic enrichment. Foliar δ¹³C in adult trees varied widely among species, ranging from −25.3 ± 0.3‰ in Enterolobium cyclocarpum to −28.7 ± 0.4‰ in T. olivaeformis. Contrary to initial expectations, data indicate that native trees growing on shallow karst soils in northern Yucatan use little or no groundwater and depend mostly on water stored within the upper 2–3 m of the soil/bedrock profile. Water storage in subsurface soil-filled cavities and in the porous limestone bedrock is apparently sufficient to sustain adult evergreen trees throughout the pronounced dry season.     

Predicting age-age genetic correlations in tree-breeding programs: a case study of Pinus taeda L.

A meta-analysis of 520 parents and 51,439 individuals was used to develop two equations for predicting age-age genetic correlations in Pinus taeda L. Genetic and phenotypic family mean correlations and heritabilities were estimated for ages ranging from 2 to 25 years on 31 sites in the southern U.S. and Zimbabwe. Equations for predicting age-age correlations based on P. taeda populations from west and east of the Mississippi River proved statistically different. Both predictive equations proved conservative for validation datasets consisting of younger tests in the U.S. and Zimbabwe. Age-dependent log-linear predictive equations were favored over growth-dependent equations. All P. taeda predictive equations based on genetic correlations favored earlier selection when compared to a generalized conifer predictive equation based on phenotypic correlations. The age-age correlations structure showed stability independent of planting density and across a wide range of family sizes. Received: 15 March 1999 / Accepted: 30 April 1999     

Reducing airborne ectomycorrhizal fungi and growing non-mycorrhizal loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings in a greenhouse

Atmospheric spores of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi are a potential source of contamination when mycorrhizal studies are performed in the greenhouse, and techniques for minimizing such contamination have rarely been tested. We grew loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) from seed in a greenhouse and inside a high-efficiency particulate air-filtered chamber (HFC) constructed within the same greenhouse. Seedlings were germinated in seven different sand- or soil-based and artificially based growth media. Seedlings grown in the HFC had fewer mycorrhizal short roots than those grown in the open greenhouse atmosphere. Furthermore, the proportion of seedlings from the HFC that were completely non-mycorrhizal was higher than that of seedlings from the greenhouse atmosphere. Seedlings grown in sterilized, artificially based growth media (>50% peat moss, vermiculite, and/or perlite by volume) had fewer mycorrhizal short roots than those grown in sand- or soil-based media. The HFC described here can minimize undesirable ECM colonization of host seedlings in greenhouse bioassays. In addition, the number of non-mycorrhizal seedlings can be maximized when the HFC is used in combination with artificially based growth media.     

不同二氧化碳浓度条件下红松和长白赤松土壤生化特性研究

以连续5年在生长季以不同浓度CO2(700和500μmol·mol^-1)处理的长白赤松和红松幼苗为研究对象。进行了土壤微生物生物量C、纤维素分解月动态以及过氧化氢酶活性动态研究．结果表明,在秋季。红松和长白赤松土壤微生物生物量C在不同浓度CO2处理箱的大小顺序均为：对照箱>500μmol·mol^-1箱>700μmol·mol^-1箱;红松和长白赤松土壤5和10cm层在不同浓度CO2处理下,其纤维素分解强度的月动态均表现出一定的规律性,且各处理之间在每个月份中也表现出一定的规律性;在生长季,红松和长白赤松土壤纤维素分解强度在5和10cm层均表现为500μmol·mol^-1 CO2处理下较700μmol·mol^-1 CO2处理下高;红松和长白赤松土壤过氧化氢酶活性在不同浓度CO2处理之间均表现出一定的规律性。且各处理的月动态变化也呈现出一定的规律性     

A global analysis of root distributions for terrestrial biomes

Understanding and predicting ecosystem functioning (e.g., carbon and water fluxes) and the role of soils in carbon storage requires an accurate assessment of plant rooting distributions. Here, in a comprehensive literature synthesis, we analyze rooting patterns for terrestrial biomes and compare distributions for various plant functional groups. We compiled a database of 250 root studies, subdividing suitable results into 11 biomes, and fitted the depth coefficient to the data for each biome (Gale and Grigal 1987). is a simple numerical index of rooting distribution based on the asymptotic equation Y=1-^d, where d = depth and Y = the proportion of roots from the surface to depth d. High values of correspond to a greater proportion of roots with depth. Tundra, boreal forest, and temperate grasslands showed the shallowest rooting profiles (=0.913, 0.943, and 0.943, respectively), with 80–90% of roots in the top 30 cm of soil; deserts and temperate coniferous forests showed the deepest profiles (=0.975 and 0.976, respectively) and had only 50% of their roots in the upper 30 cm. Standing root biomass varied by over an order of magnitude across biomes, from approximately 0.2 to 5 kg m^-2. Tropical evergreen forests had the highest root biomass (5 kg m^-2), but other forest biomes and sclerophyllous shrublands were of similar magnitude. Root biomass for croplands, deserts, tundra and grasslands was below 1.5 kg m^-2. Root/shoot (R/S) ratios were highest for tundra, grasslands, and cold deserts (ranging from 4 to 7); forest ecosystems and croplands had the lowest R/S ratios (approximately 0.1 to 0.5). Comparing data across biomes for plant functional groups, grasses had 44% of their roots in the top 10 cm of soil. (=0.952), while shrubs had only 21% in the same depth increment (=0.978). The rooting distribution of all temperate and tropical trees was =0.970 with 26% of roots in the top 10 cm and 60% in the top 30 cm. Overall, the globally averaged root distribution for all ecosystems was =0.966 (r ²=0.89) with approximately 30%, 50%, and 75% of roots in the top 10 cm, 20 cm, and 40 cm, respectively. We discuss the merits and possible shortcomings of our analysis in the context of root biomass and root functioning.     

Environmental effects on constitutive and inducible resin defences of Pinus taeda

The ecological literature abounds with studies of environmental effects on plant antiherbivore defences. While various models have been proposed (e.g. plant stress, optimal allocation, growth-differentiation balance), each has met with mixed support. One possible explanation for the mixed results is that constitutive and induced defences are differentially affected by environmental conditions. In this study, constitutive oleoresin flow from Pinus tadea was least during periods of rapid tree growth and most when drought conditions limited growth; this is as expected if constitutive secondary metabolism is a function of the carbohydrate pool size after growth has been maximised. Induced increases in resin flow, however, were greatest in the fastest growing trees during the season of greatest growth. Apparently, resin production becomes an allocation priority after wounding but not before. Understanding environmental effects on plant antiherbivore defences requires physiological and evolutionary models that account for the differences between constitutive and induced secondary metabolism.     

不同栽培措施下火炬松穗条产量的变化

以1年生火炬松Pinus taeda实生苗为材料,进行3因素(截干高度、施肥配方、种植密度)3水平L9(34)正交试验,分析不同栽培措施对穗条产量的影响。结果表明,春季促进穗条产量增加的优化组合为截干高度15 cm,施用农家肥,种植行间距50 cm×80 cm;夏季优化组合为施用农家肥+复合肥,截干高度15 cm,种植行间距为50 cm×80 cm;秋季优化组合为施用农家肥+复合肥,种植行间距50 cm×80 cm,截干高度为12 cm;冬季优化组合为施用农家肥,截干高度15 cm,种植行间距40 cm×50 cm;提高单株穗条年产量的优化组合为施用农家肥+复合肥,截干高度15 cm,种植行间距40 cm×50 cm。因此,在火炬松生长不同时期,选用不同的栽培措施有助于提高穗条产量。     

Diverging growth and resilience of Pinus tabulaeformis and Pinus massoniana to droughts in north-south transition zone,central China

Climate transition zone is a sensitive area of climate change and ecological transition where forests are vulnerable to climate extremes. Extreme droughts are increasing in frequency and magnitude under climate change, resulting in structure and function changes of forest ecosystems. Here, to analyze climate-growth relationships and quantify tree resilience to extreme droughts, we developed six tree-ring-width chronologies from P. tabulaeformis and P. massoniana sampling sites in Mt. Jigong region, Central China. The results indicated that all chronologies from the two species had good consistency, precipitation in current April and mean temperature in current August or mean minimum temperature from current August to October were the main limiting factors of the two tree species growth, but the responses of P. massoniana ring-width to climatic factors was more complex than that of P. tabulaeformis. The results also showed that tree growth of 1999–2005 was the lowest growing period during 1979–2018, and P. massoniana grew better than P. tabulaeformis before 2005 and vice versa after 2005. Comparing low growth years of trees, we identified to study tree growth resilience. The calculations from 1988, 1999–2005 and 2011 drought years indicated that P. tabulaeformis had more increased resilience to extreme droughts than that of P. massoniana, and the two species had stronger ecological recovery and resilience under global warming and non-extreme drought conditions in the recent 40 years. These results have implications for predicting tree resilience and identifying tree species in heterogeneous forest landscapes vulnerable to future climate change in climatic transition zone.     

引种火炬松家系的速生性和稳定性综合分析

以湿地松和马尾松为对照,对福建省引种的5年生火炬松家系生长情况进行调查分析,结果表明,引种火炬松的树高、胸径和材积的家系方差及家系与地点互作方差均达显著水平,火炬松家系在福建省的平均生长表现优于马尾松和湿地松。利用系统聚类法可将测试的25个火炬松家系分为速生、较速生、中等和较差4类,其相对于当地树种马尾松的实际增益分别为83.2%、63.4%、48.5%和33.7%。运用基因型分组法对火炬松家系的速生性和稳定性进行综合评价,最终确定19、25、18、21、10号家系为增产且变异小,具有理想基因型的稳定型家系。     

外生菌根菌在火炬松人工林应用的研究

连续６年研究了外生菌根菌在火炬松人工林的应用．结果表明,１２个供试菌株均能不同程度地在火炬松根系上形成外生菌根．在１２个供试菌株中,以松林小牛肝菌效果最佳,无论是在苗期还是上山造林,对促进寄主生长的效果均最好,且促进寄主生长的效果在立地条件较差的情况下表现得更为明显．     

Root growth dynamics of Deyeuxia angustifolia seedlings in response to water level

A greenhouse experiment was performed to investigate root growth dynamics, plant growth, root porosity and root morphology of a marsh plant Deyeuxia angustifolia, one of the dominant species in the Sanjiang Plain, China. The aim of this study was to elucidate how this plant adjusts its root system to acclimate to different hydrological environments. Experimental treatments included three water depths: −5, 0 and 5 cm (relative to the soil surface). Biomass accumulation was higher in the −5 cm (0.90 g per plant) and 0 cm water-depth (1.18 g per plant) than that in the 5 cm water-depth treatments (0.66 g per plant), indicating that plant growth was inhibited in the high water level. Root:shoot ratio (0.67 versus 0.42–0.43), the length (16 cm versus 12–13 cm) and diameter of adventitious roots (0.47 mm versus 0.41 mm), and root number (167 versus 81–119 number of roots per plant) were higher in the 0 cm water-depth than those in the high and low water-depth treatments. Enhanced water level led to slightly increased porosity of main roots, but porosity was about 7% in all treatments. After 8 weeks, roots had been distributed into 14, 11 and 7 cm soil depth in the 0, −5 and 5 cm water-depth treatments, respectively, indicating that both high and low water levels led to shallow root systems. Our data suggest that D. angustifolia can adjust root morphology and root growth pattern according to water level, and that this plant has limited oxygen diffusion potential to the roots due to the reduced biomass in the high water level.     

Population structure and growth-stress relationship of Pinus taeda in rock outcrop habitats

Abstract. On the granite outcrops of the southeastern United States, soil accumulates in shallow depressions on the rock surface. A specific sequence of vascular plants characterizes the temporal development of these systems. The edaphic end point of the succession is apparently attained with a herb-shrub-tree stage with Pinus taeda as the dominant tree. We studied the characteristics of this stage and the population structure of P. taeda on outcrop islands in order to specify the successional status of the species in this habitat. We compared the radial growth pattern of outcrop and Piedmont populations of P. taeda, and of two outcrop sub-populations. We checked whether trees on outcrops experience more limiting conditions than trees on the Piedmont, and studied the recent change in the relationship between growth and stress (e.g. drought and atmospheric deposition) reported for loblolly pine in the southeastern United States. We also attempted to identify the climatic variables most critical for tree growth on outcrops. On outcrop soil islands, P. taeda maintains populations that are of irregular age distribution, possibly in response to irregular recruitment and survival. There are no signs of loblolly pine replacement by hardwood species on any of the islands studied, although an understory of shrubby oak appears to characterize larger and deeper-soil islands. Although trees on the Piedmont were growing at a higher rate than those on the outcrop in the first part of the 1950–1988 period, their growth declined at a higher rate than that of trees on the outcrop. As a result, at the end of the period considered (1950–1988), the differences in radial growth between outcrop and Piedmont populations were relatively small. On the outcrop, trees < 22 yr old in 1989 were growing at a rate somewhat lower than that of trees of similar age, 40 yr ago. Differences were apparent in the initial growth patterns between the two outcrop subpopulations (1989 and 1949 stems), and these could have resulted from differences in competition regime, stress or climatic conditions, or a combination thereof. However, a repeated-measures ANOVA failed to reveal a significant recent decrease in the radial growth of loblolly pine in the system studied. The identification of numerous signature years (years with ≥ 80 % of the trees with similar increasing or decreasing trend in their radial growth) suggests that similar environmental variables control the growth of loblolly pine in both outcrop and Piedmont habitats. High temperature and low precipitation in the first part of the summer (June-July) seem to limit radial growth. Those pines growing on outcrop soil islands, however, appear more sensitive to climatic fluctuations.     

Tolerance of Pinus taeda and Pinus serotina to low salinity and flooding: Implications for equilibrium vegetation dynamics

Questions: 1. Do pine seedlings in estuarine environments display discrete or continuous ranges of physiological tolerance to flooding and salinity? 2. What is the tolerance of Pinus taeda and P. serotina to low salinity and varying hydrologic conditions? 3. Are the assumptions for ecological equilibrium met for modeling plant community migration in response to sea‐level rise? Location: Albemarle Peninsula, North Carolina, USA. Methods: In situ observations were made to quantify natural pine regeneration and grass cover along a salinity stress gradient (from marsh, dying or dead forest, to healthy forest). A full‐factorial greenhouse experiment was set up to investigate mortality and carbon allocation of Pinus taeda and P. serotina to low‐salinity conditions and two hydrology treatments over 6 months. Treatments consisted of freshwater and two salinity levels (4 ppt and 8 ppt) under either permanently flooded or periodically flushed hydrologic conditions. Results: Natural pine regeneration was common (5–12 seedlings per m²) in moderate to well‐drained soils where salinity concentrations were below ca. 3.5 ppt. Pine regeneration was generally absent in flooded soils, and cumulative mortality was 100% for 4 and 8 ppt salinity levels under flooded conditions in the greenhouse study. Under weekly flushing conditions, mortality was not significantly different between 0 and 4 ppt, confirming field observations. Biomass accumulation was higher for P. taeda, but for both pine species, the root to shoot ratio was suppressed under the 8 ppt drained treatment, reflecting increased below‐ground stress. Conclusions: While Pinus taeda and P. serotina are commonly found in estuarine ecosystems, these species display a range of physiological tolerance to low‐salinity conditions. Our results suggest that the rate of forest migration may lag relative to gradual sea‐level rise and concomitant alterations in hydrology and salinity. Current bioclimate or landscape simulation models assume discrete thresholds in the range of plant tolerance to stress, especially in coastal environments, and consequently, they may overestimate the rate, extent, and timing of plant community response to sea‐level rise.     

Effects of grazing on plant species diversity and carbon partitioning in semiarid rangelands of northeastern China

Grasslands are one of the most widespread landscapes worldwide, covering approximately one-fifth of the world’s land surface, where grazing is a common practice. How carbon storage responds to grazing in steppes remains poorly understood. We quantified the effects of grazing on community composition and species diversity, and carbon storage in two typical grasslands of northeastern China, one in Horqin and the other one in Hulunbeier. In both grasslands, grazing did not influence plant species diversity. However, it substantially decreased aboveground carbon by 31% and 54% in Horqin and Hulunbeier, respectively. Fenced and grazing treatments showed a similar belowground carbon at both locations. The predominant carbon pool in the study grassland ecosystem was found in the upper 100 cm soil depth, from 98.2 to 99.1% of the total carbon storage. There were no significant effects of grazing on soil carbon neither in the whole profile nor in the uppermost 20 cm soil depth in the two study grasslands. Studies on the effects of varying rangeland management, such as region disparity and grazing systems, may have important consequences on species diversity and carbon partitioning, and thus on rangeland stability and ecosystem functioning.     

Response to auxin changes during maturation-related loss of adventitious rooting competence in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) stem cuttings

Hypocotyl cuttings (from 20- and 50-day-old Pinus taeda L. seedlings) rooted readily within 30 days in response to exogenous auxin, while epicotyl cuttings (from 50-day-old seedlings) rarely formed roots within 60 days. Responses to auxin during adventitious rooting included the induction of cell reorganization and cell division, followed by the organization of the root meristem. Explants from the bases of both epicotyl and hypocotyl cuttings readily formed callus tissue in response to a variety of auxins, but did not organize root meristems. Auxin-induced cell division was observed in the cambial region within 4 days, and later spread to the outer cortex at the same rate in both tissues. Cells at locations that would normally form roots in foliated hypocotyl cuttings did not produce callus any differently than those in other parts of the cortex. Therefore, auxin-induced root meristem organization appeared to occur independently of auxin-induced cell reorganization/division. The observation that N-(1-naphthyl)phthalamic acid (NPA) promoted cellular reorganization and callus formation but delayed rooting implies the existence of an auxin signal transduction pathway that is specific to root meristem organization. Attempts to induce root formation in callus or explants without foliage were unsuccessful. Both the cotyledon and epicotyl foliage provided a light-dependent product other than auxin that promoted root meristem formation in hypocotyl cuttings.     

Leptographium terebrantis inoculation and associated crown symptoms and tree mortality in Pinus taeda

Leptographium terebrantis has been implicated as a contributing factor of P. taeda decline and mortality over the past several decades. We examined the potential of L. terebrantis to cause decline symptoms and determined the relationship between pathogen spread and the formation of new sapwood. The study was undertaken in a 13-y-old P. taeda plantation using artificial inoculations of fungal-colonized, sterilized toothpicks. We found that L. terebrantis was not only re-isolated from dying inoculated trees but caused decline symptomology and mortality at a high inoculum density. It was found that 20% mortality and severe growth loss among surviving trees occurred with L. terebrantis infection at the high density. At lower inoculum densities, trees produced a complete ring of new sapwood that appeared to sustain tree physiology. This suggests that management practices in P. taeda plantations which minimize bark beetle infestation and pathogen inoculum densities allow adequate sapwood function for sustained growth.     

Water status and growth of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) callus

Water status of Pinus taeda L. callus supported on Murashige and Skoog (MS) liquid medium was characterized over an 8 week period using thermocouple psychrometry. Medium with 30 gl⁻¹ sucrose was used to produce a high water potential (Ψ_w) of −0.4 MPa (H), and the same medium was used to create a moderate Ψ_w of −0.7 MPa (M) by the addition of 10% polyethylene glycol (PEG, w/v, MW=8000). Calli were produced from cotyledon explants on H medium for 2 weeks and then transferred to either M or H medium. Callus absorption of PEG accounted for 40% of the callus dry weight and less than 7% of the callus fresh weight. Callus dry weight (without the PEG fraction) on M medium was 40% of that observed on H medium. Fresh weight on M medium was only 15% of that observed on H medium. The Ψ_w of both H and M media remained constant throughout the culture period. On H medium, callus Ψ_w and osmotic potential (Ψ_s) both increased 0.05 MPa/week with the callus Ψ_w approaching that of the external medium. On M medium, callus Ψ_w and Ψ_s both decreased more than 0.1 MPa/week with the callus Ψ_w decreasing greatly below that of the external medium. The latter was attributed to a rapidly produced osmotic shock induced upon callus transfer and/or PEG which caused less callus hydration and resulted in reduced growth. Callus turgor potential (Ψ_p) was estimated to be +0.02 to +0.09 MPa and turgor was maintained as callus Ψ_w increased or decreased. After 8 weeks, cell volumes from callus on M medium were 50 to 60% less than on H medium, suggesting that reduced cell volumes were related to turgor maintenance.