Volatile compounds of cashew apple (Anacardium occidentale L.)

The volatile compounds of a largely consumed Brazilian cashew apple variety (Anacardium occidentale L. var. nanum, Anacardiaceae) were recovered by headspace extraction or simultaneous distillation-extraction. Several compounds including esters (29), terpenes (16), hydrocarbons (9), carboxylic acids (7), aldehydes (7), alcohols (3), ketones (2), lactones (2) and norisoprenoids (1) were characterized and quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses.     

Extraction of cashew (Anacardium occidentale) nut shell liquid using supercritical carbon dioxide

This work investigated the extraction of cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO(2)). Effects of process parameters such as extraction pressure, temperature and flow rate of SC-CO(2) were investigated. The yield of CNSL increased with increase in pressure, temperature and mass flow rate of SC-CO(2). However, under different operating conditions, the composition of CNSL varied. The study of physical properties and chemical composition of the oil obtained through super critical fluid extraction (SCFE) showed better quality as compared to the CNSL obtained through thermal route. Experimental results were compared with diffusion based mass transfer model. Based on this simple model, extraction time was optimized.     

Protective effect of anacardic acids from cashew (Anacardium occidentale) on ethanol-induced gastric damage in mice

Cashew nut-shell liquid and the contained anacardic acids (AAs) have been shown to possess antioxidant, lipoxygenase inhibitory, anti-Helicobacter pylori and antitumor properties. Despite these known effects, hitherto there were no published reports on their likely gastroprotective effects. The present study was designed to verify whether AAs afford gastroprotection against the ethanol-induced gastric damage and to examine the underlying mechanism(s). Gastric damage was induced by intragastric administration of 0.2 mL of ethanol (96%). Mice in groups were pretreated orally with AAs (10, 30 and 100 mg/kg), misoprostol (50 μg/kg), or vehicle (2% Tween 80 in saline, 10 mL/kg), 45 min before ethanol administration. They were sacrificed 30 min later, the stomachs excised, and the mucosal lesion area (mm²) measured by planimetry. Gastroprotection was assessed in relation to inhibition of gastric lesion area. To study the gastroprotective mechanism(s), its relations to capsaicin-sensitive fibers, endogenous prostaglandins, nitric oxide and ATP-sensitive potassium channels were analysed. Treatments effects on ethanol-associated oxidative stress markers GSH, MDA, catalase, SOD, and total nitrate/nitrite levels as an index of NO were measured in gastric tissue. Besides, the effects of AAs on gastric secretory volume and total acidity were analysed in 4-h pylorus-ligated rat. AAs afforded a dose-related gastroprotection against the ethanol damage and further prevented the ethanol-induced changes in the levels of GSH, MDA, catalase, SOD and nitrate/nitrite. However, they failed to modify the gastric secretion or the total acidity. It was observed that the gastroprotection by AAs was greatly reduced in animals pretreated with capsazepine, indomethacin, l-NAME or glibenclamide. These results suggest that AAs afford gastroprotection principally through an antioxidant mechanism. Other complementary mechanisms include the activation of capsaicin-sensitive gastric afferents, stimulation of endogenous prostaglandins and nitric oxide, and opening of K⁺_ATP channels. These combined effects are likely to be accompanied by an increase in gastric microcirculation.     

Salt-induced delay in cotyledonary globulin mobilization is abolished by induction of proteases and leaf growth sink strength at late seedling establishment in cashew

Seedling establishment in saline conditions is crucial for plant survival and productivity. This study was performed to elucidate the biochemical and physiological mechanisms involved with the recovery and establishment of cashew seedlings subjected to salinity. The changes in the Na+ levels and K/Na ratios, associated with relative water content, indicated that osmotic effects were more important than salt toxicity in the inhibition of seedling growth and cotyledonary protein mobilization. Salinity (50 mM NaCl) induced a strong delay in protein breakdown and amino acid accumulation in cotyledons, and this effect was closely related to azocaseinolytic and protease activities. In parallel, proline and free amino acids accumulated in the leaves whereas the protein content decreased. Assays with specific inhibitors indicated that the most important proteases in cotyledons were of serine, cysteine and aspartic types. Proteomic analysis revealed that most of the cashew reserve proteins are 11S globulin-type and that these proteins were similarly degraded under salinity. In the late establishment phase, the salt-treated seedlings displayed an unexpected recovery in terms of leaf growth and N mobilization from cotyledon to leaves. This recovery coordinately involved a great leaf expansion, decreased amino acid content and increased protein synthesis in leaves. This response occurred in parallel with a prominent induction in the cotyledon proteolytic activity. Altogether, these data suggest that a source–sink mechanism involving leaf growth and protein synthesis may have acted as an important sink for reserve mobilization contributing to the seedling establishment under salinity. The amino acids that accumulated in the leaves may have exerted negative feedback to act as a signal for the induction of protease activity in the cotyledon. Overall, these mechanisms employed by cashew seedlings may be part of an adaptive process for the efficient rescue of cotyledonary proteins, as the cashew species originates from an environment with N-poor soil and high salinity.     

Separation of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) nut shell liquid with supercritical carbon dioxide

Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) represents the largest readily available bioresource of alkenyl phenolic compounds. In this work, separation of CNSL from the pericarp of the cashew nut with supercritical carbon dioxide was studied. In the initial extractions with CO(2) at 40-60 degrees C and at pressures from 14.7 to 29.4 MPa, low yields were obtained. However, when the extractions were performed with one or more intermediate depressurization steps, the yield of CNSL increased to as high as 94%. Most of the oil did not separate from the shell during the depressurization step, but was obtained during the subsequent repressurization. The CNSL extract had a clear light brownish pink color and exhibited no evidence of polymerization or degradation. The pressure profile extraction method proposed in this work increases the possible CNSL extraction yields and greatly reduces the amount of CO(2) required for CNSL separation.     

Pollen vigour and composition in relation to andromonoecy in cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.: Anacardiaceae)

Summary Cashew trees produce four types of pollen from the large and small stamens of the hermaphrodite and male flower (HL, HS, ML, MS). Comparative studies were made of the grain number, structure, viability, vigour, and sugar and amino acid composition of the four pollen types. Anther and pollen grain numbers and dimensions of the four pollen types were similar, as were pollen structure and staining characteristics. The fluorescein diacetate test showed that the HL pollen had the highest percent fluorescence, and viability of all pollen types had declined by 48 h after anthesis. Following controlled hand pollination, the ML pollen had the highest capacity to germinate on the stigma and penetrate the ovule, followed by the MS, HL, and HS pollens. Glucose and fructose and 19 free amino acids were present in all pollen types, with higher levels in the hermaphrodite than in the male flower pollen. The results indicate that the pollen of the male flower is specialised for pollination and fruit set, whereas that of the hermaphrodite flower may be specialised for insect attraction.     

Anti-inflammatory and wound healing potential of cashew apple juice (Anacardium occidentale L.) in mice

Cashew apple is a tropical pseudofruit consumed as juice due to its excellent nutritional and sensory properties. In spite of being well known for its important antioxidant properties, the cashew apple has not been thoroughly investigated for its therapeutic potential. Thereby, this study evaluated the antioxidant capacity, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing activities of cashew apple juice. Juices from ripe and immature cashew apples were analyzed for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties. Those were evaluated in murine models of xylene-induced ear edema and wound excision. Swiss mice were treated with cashew juice by gavage. Edema thickness was measured and skin lesions were analyzed by planimetry and histology. Both antioxidant content and total antioxidant activity were higher in ripe cashew apple juice (RCAJ) than in unripe cashew apple juice (UNCAJ). The UNCAJ presented the main anti-inflammatory activity by a significant inhibition of ear edema (66.5%) when compared to RCAJ (10%). Moreover, UNCAJ also showed the best result for wound contraction (86.31%) compared to RCAJ (67.54%). Despite of higher antioxidant capacity, RCAJ did not promote better anti-inflammatory, and healing responses, which may be explained by the fact that treatment increased antioxidants level leading to a redox “imbalance” turning down the inflammatory response modulation exerted by reactive oxygen species (ROS). The results suggest that UNCAJ presents a greater therapeutic activity due to a synergistic effect of its phytochemical components, which improve the immunological mechanisms as well as an optimal balance between ROS and antioxidants leading to a better wound healing process.     

In vitro multiplication of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) using shoot node explants of glasshouse-raised plants

Using glasshouse-raised plants (1 month, 1 year and 5 years old), factors affecting shoot development from shoot nodes of two Brazilian and one Tanzanian elite selections of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) were assessed. Sprouting of buds decreased strongly with increasing age of mother plants. Solidified media, mainly when purified agar was used, gave better results than liquid medium. Murashige and Skoog salts containing 1/2-strength macroelements were the most suitable for bud sprouting and shoot elongation. Vitamins and sucrose concentration did not have a significant effect but by replacing 20 g/l sucrose with glucose or maltose all estimated parameters were improved. Gibberellins supported bud sprouting and shoot elongation but blocked rooting. Shoots developed in the presence of cytokinins were short and produced axillary branches. Activated charcoal, cultivation of explants in darkness for the first 7 days and superoptimal temperature (35 °C) decreased bud sprouting and supported shoot elongation. Microshoots rooted in vitro at a frequency of 42% when cultured for 5 days with 100 μμ indole-3-butyric acid. Over 40% of rooted microshoots survived weaning. Received: 20 October 1996 / Revision received: 24 January 1997 / Accepted: 1 June 1997     

Tropidacris collaris (Orthoptera: Romaleidae) expands its damage in orchards of the dwarf cashew,Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)

The giant grasshopper Tropidacris collaris (Stoll, 1813) (Orthoptera: Romaleidae) is a Neotropical species that causes economic damage to diverse and unrelated crops. We report herein the occurrence of this grasshopper in orchards of dwarf cashew Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae) located in the state of Ceará, one of the main cashew‐producing areas of Brazil. Nymphs and adults were observed feeding on cashew leaves during June and July 2016, causing partial or total defoliation of some plants. This report updates the feeding plants of T. collaris and its distribution in Brazil and serves as an early warning of possible future attacks by the pest on cashew orchards in the northeastern region of the country.     

Ultrastructure of Gum-resin Ducts in Cashew (Anacardium occidentale)

In Anacardium occidentale L., the gum-resin ducts in the primaryphloem of the stem develop schizogenously. Appearance of anintercellular space amongst the densely stained cells signalsthe initiation of a duct. During this process, the middle lamella,appears in places, as an electron-opaque area. The epitheialcells bordering the duct are oval and have convex inner tangentialwalls which are without any plasmodesmata, although they areabundant on radial and outer tangential walls. The cytoplasmof the epitheial cells is rich in rough endoplasmic reticulum(ER), free ribosomes, polysomes, mitochondria with swollen cristae,plastids with occasional osmiophilic inclusions, dictyosomesand vesicles. Osmiophilic material has been observed in thedilation of the cisternae of dictyosomes and also in vesicles.Sometimes, the osmiophilic material aggregates and forms largemembrane-bound globules. The globules fuse with the plasmalemmaat the inner tangential wall, and presumably the contents aredeposited in the space between the protoplast and the wall.This material passes through the loose matrix of the wall intothe duct. Some of the epitheial cells of the mature duct show‘dark’ cytoplasm, degraded organelles and occasionallyhigh vacuolation; ultimately they are lysed and their remainscollect in the duct. Anacardium occidentale L., cashew, gum-resin ducts, epithlial cell, dictyosome, osmiophilic material, ultrastructure     

Effects of immature cashew nut-shell liquid (Anacardium occidentale) against oxidative damage in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity

The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale) represents one of the major cheapest sources of non-isoprenoid phenolic lipids, which have a variety of biological properties: they can act as molluscicides, insecticides, fungicides, have anti-termite properties, have medicinal applications, and demonstrate antioxidant activity in vitro. Immature cashew nut-shell liquid (iCNSL) is a unique natural source of unsaturated long-chain phenols. Their use has stimulated much research in order to prepare drug analogues for application in several fields. The objective of the present study was to determine whether iCNSL has antioxidant properties when used in strains of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and to measure the inhibitory activity of acetylcholinesterase. The constituents were identified using thin-layer chromatography, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and (1)H and (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance. The iCNSL contains anacardic acid, cardanol, cardol, and 2-methyl cardol. Immature cashew nut oil contains triacylglycerols, fatty acids, alkyl-substituted phenols, and cholesterol. The main constituents of the free fatty acids are palmitic (C(16:0)) and oleic acid (C(18:1)). iCNSL has excellent protective activities in strains of S. cerevisiae against oxidative damage induced by hydrogen peroxide and inhibits acetylcholinesterase activity. iCNSL may have an important role in protecting DNA against damage induced by reactive oxygen species, as well as hydrogen peroxide, generated by intra- and extracellular mechanisms.     

Characterization and PCR multiplexing of polymorphic microsatellite loci in cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) and their cross‐species utilization

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is the most economically important tropical nut crop in the world, and yet there are no sequence tagged site (STS) markers available for its study. Here we use an automated, high‐throughput system to isolate cashew microsatellites from a non‐enriched genomic library blotted onto membranes at high density for screening. Sixty‐five sequences contained a microsatellite array, of which 21 proved polymorphic among a closely related seed garden population of 49 genotypes. Twelve markers were suitable for multiplex analysis. Of these, 10 amplified in all three related tropical tree species tested: Anacardium microcarpum, Anacardium pumilum and Anacardium nanum.     

Assessment of yield enhancement in cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) by the pollinator sharing effect of magnetic bee-friendly plants in India

The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that pollinator sharing among cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) and co-blooming magnetic bee-friendly plants facilitate higher productivity of cashew nuts. We examined the reproductive efficacy of cashew in three sites with distinct vegetation pattern (site I: sparsely distributed individuals, without association of co-blooming magnetic bee-friendly plant; site II: densely distributed individuals, without association of co-blooming magnetic bee-friendly plant; site III: densely distributed individuals, associated with co-blooming magnetic bee-friendly plants). Floral traits (including flowering time, flower architecture, number of flowers per panicle, hermaphrodite- male flower ratio, floral rewards, anthesis time and longevity of flower) does not differ among the study sites. According to the value of relative pollinator service (RPS), Apis dorsata was the primary pollinator of cashew and also shared by the co-blooming bee-friendly plants. The abundance of pollinators was the highest in site III and the lowest in site I. The nut yield was also significantly higher in site III cashew orchard which was in association with magnetic bee-friendly plants. Therefore, we can conclude that the association of co-blooming magnetic plants increased nut yield of cashew through the enhancement of pollinator's services.     

Comparative assessment of DNA fingerprinting techniques (RAPD, ISSR and AFLP) for genetic analysis of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) accessions of India.

Nineteen cashew accessions were analysed with 50 random primers, 12 ISSR primers and 6 AFLP primer pairs to compare the efficiency and utility of these techniques for detecting variation in cashew germplasm. Each marker system could discriminate between all of the accessions, albeit with varied efficiency of polymorphism detection. AFLP exhibited maximum discrimination efficiency with a genotype index of 1. The utility of each molecular marker technique, expressed as marker index, was estimated as a function of average band informativeness and effective multiplex ratio. Marker index was calculated to be more than 10 times higher in AFLP than in RAPD and ISSR. Similarity matrices were determined based on the data generated by molecular and morphometric analyses, and compared for congruency. AFLP displayed no correspondence with RAPD and ISSR. Correlation between ISSR and RAPD similarity matrices was low but significant (r = 0.63; p < 0.005). The similarity matrix based on morphometric markers exhibited no correlation with any of the molecular markers. AFLP, with its superior marker utility, was concluded to be the marker of choice for cashew genetic analysis.     

Regulation of reserve mobilisation in sunflower during late seedling establishment in continuous darkness

• Reserve mobilisation, metabolite partitioning and reserve‐degrading enzyme activity were studied in sunflower seedlings cultivated in vitro under a 12‐h photoperiod or in the dark to investigate the involvement of source–sink relation and carbon starvation in the regulation of reserve mobilisation under continuous darkness.
• Reserves, metabolites and enzyme activity were determined with standard spectrophotometric methods.
• At the first 24 h of treatment (acclimation phase), darkness did not affect growth, but restricted carbon and nitrogen use, as indicated by sugar and amino acid accumulation in the different seedling parts. After 5 days of treatment (survival phase), extended darkness limited growth and retarded storage lipid mobilisation due to carbon starvation, as evidenced by the depletion of carbohydrates in cotyledons and hypocotyl, as well as the consumption of amino acids in hypocotyls and roots.
• Alterations in the source–sink relationship might have been a response to prolonged darkness, instead of a mechanism used to regulate reserve mobilisation, as these alterations cannot be associated with negative feedback mediated by metabolite accumulation. Storage lipid degradation depends, at least in part, on mechanisms that co‐ordinately regulate the activities of lipases and isocitrate lyase. Taking these results together, it is possible that reserve mobilisation in sunflower seedlings cultivated in the dark might be regulated by mechanisms that perceive the absence of light and predict carbon starvation, adjusting reserve use according to future energy demands to allow, at least in the short term, seedling survival.

     

Insecticidal potential of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) for control of the beetle,Callosobruchus subinnotatus (Pic.) (Bruchidae) on bambarra-groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea L.) Verde

Abstract

The nut and shell of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) were evaluated for insecticidal efficacy at concentrations of 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% per 150 g bambarra groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea L.) Verde seeds against Callosobruchus subinnotatus (Pic.) (Bruchidae). Cashew nut shell was highly toxic to C. subinnotatus and achieved 100% insect mortality within 48 hours at 7.5% and 100% mortality within 72% hours at 2.5 and 5.0% concentrations. Oviposition and progeny development of the insect were severely suppressed while seeds were protected from damage by the bruchid. Seed germination was, however, impaired at all concentrations, suggesting that seed treated with cashew products may be suitable for consumption but not be suitable as planting stock.     

The potential for controlling Megalurothrips sjostedti (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on cowpea,Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp flowers using extracts of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) products

Abstract

The efficacy of aqueous extracts of cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. products was tested on Legume flower bud thrips on field cowpea in the 1999 and 2000 seasons using nutseed and nutshell at 10% w/v, bark and leaf at 20% w/v. Aqueous extract of cashew nutshell was superior to other cashew products in reducing thrip populations in cowpea flowers and compared favourably with cypermethrin + dimethoate. Pod density per plant was significantly enhanced on cowpea plants sprayed with aqueous extract of cashew nutshell compared to other extracts. Cashew extract contains cardole (a caustic substance) and anacardic acid, which may have been responsible for its insecticidal effect on thrips. This result indicates the potential of cashew products especially the nutshell for integrated management of thrips in legume crops.     

Role of abscisic acid in regulation of wheat seedling growth under salinity stress

Growth of wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Mehran-89), in hydroponic culture, was affected by abscisic acid (ABA). Using salinity stress and exogenous ABA application (10-6 M) to enhance endogenous ABA level, the growth of roots was more suppressed than the growth of shoots. On the other hand, norflurazon, which inhibits ABA biosynthesis, reduced only the growth of shoots. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.