Thermodynamic binding studies of bivalent oligosaccharides to galectin-1, galectin-3, and the carbohydrate recognition domain of galectin-3

Galectins are a growing family of animal lectins with common consensus sequences that bind beta-Gal and LacNAc residues. There are at present 14 members of the galectin family; however, certain galectins possess different structures as well as biological properties. Galectin-1 is a dimer of two homologous carbohydrate recognition domains (CRDs) and possesses apoptotic and proinvasive activities. Galectin-3 consists of a C-terminal CRD and an N-terminal nonlectin domain implicated in the oligomerization of the protein and is often associated with antiapoptotic activity. Because many cellular oligosaccharide receptors are multivalent, it is important to characterize the interactions of multivalent carbohydrates with galectins-1 and -3. In the present study, binding of bovine heart galectin-1 and recombinant murine galectin-3 to a series of synthetic analogs containing two LacNAc residues separated by a varying number of methylene groups, as well as biantennary analogs possessing two LacNAc residues, were examined using isothermal titration microcalorimetry (ITC) and hemagglutination inhibition measurements. The thermodynamics of binding of the multivalent carbohydrates to the C-terminal CRD domain of galectin-3 was also investigated. ITC results showed that each bivalent analog bound by both LacNAc residues to the two galectins. However, galectin-1 shows a lack of enhanced affinity for the bivalent straight chain and branched chain analogs, whereas galectin-3 shows enhanced affinity for only lacto-N-hexaose, a naturally occurring branched chain carbohydrate. The CRD domain of galectin-3 was shown to possess similar thermodynamic binding properties as the intact molecule. The results of this study have important implications for the design of carbohydrate inhibitors of the two galectins.     

Effects of clustered epitopes in multivalent ligand-receptor interactions

Many biological ligands are composed of clustered binding epitopes. However, the effects of clustered epitopes on the affinity of ligand-receptor interactions in many cases are not well understood. Clustered carbohydrate epitopes are present in naturally occurring multivalent carbohydrates and glycoproteins, which are receptors on the surface of cells. Recent studies have provided evidence that the enhanced affinities of lectins, which are carbohydrate binding proteins, for multivalent carbohydrates and glycoproteins are due to internal diffusion of lectin molecules from epitope to epitope in these multivalent ligands before dissociation. Indeed, binding of lectins to mucins, which are large linear glycoproteins, appears to be similar to the internal diffusion mechanism(s) of protein ligands binding to DNA, which have been termed the "bind and slide" or "bind and hop" mechanisms. The observed increasing negative cooperativity and gradient of decreasing microaffinity constants of a lectin binding to multivalent carbohydrates and glycoproteins result in an initial fraction of lectin molecules that bind with very high affinity and dynamic motion. These findings have important implications for the mechanisms of binding of lectins to mucins, and for other ligand-biopolymer interactions and clustered ligand-receptor systems in general.     

Thermodynamic binding studies of galectin-1, -3 and -7

The carbohydrate binding specificities of the galectin family of animal lectins has been the source of intense recent investigations. Isothermal titration microcalorimetry (ITC) provides direct determination of the thermodynamics of binding of carbohydrates to lectins, and has provided important insights into the fine carbohydrate binding specificities of a wide number of plant and animal lectins. Recent ITC studies have been performed with galectin-1, galectin-3 and galectin-7 and their interactions with sialylated and non-sialylated carbohydrates. The results show important differences in the specificities of these three galectins toward poly-N-acetyllactosamine epitopes found on the surface of cells.     

Thermodynamic binding studies of galectin-1, -3 and -7

The carbohydrate binding specificities of the galectin family of animal lectins has been the source of intense recent investigations. Isothermal titration microcalorimetry (ITC) provides direct determination of the thermodynamics of binding of carbohydrates to lectins, and has provided important insights into the fine carbohydrate binding specificities of a wide number of plant and animal lectins. Recent ITC studies have been performed with galectin-1, galectin-3 and galectin-7 and their interactions with sialylated and non-sialylated carbohydrates. The results show important differences in the specificities of these three galectins toward poly-N-acetyllactosamine epitopes found on the surface of cells. Published in 2004.     

Negative cooperativity associated with binding of multivalent carbohydrates to lectins. Thermodynamic analysis of the "multivalency effect".

Our previous study demonstrated that isothermal titration microcalorimetry (ITC) could be used to determine the thermodynamics of binding of a series of synthetic multivalent carbohydrates to the Man/Glc-specific lectins concanavalin A (ConA) and Dioclea grandiflora lectin (DGL) [Dam, T. K., Roy, R., Das, S. K., Oscarson, S. and Brewer, C. F. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 14223-14230]. The higher affinities of the multivalent carbohydrates for the two lectins were shown to be due to their greater positive entropy of binding contributions relative to monovalent analogues. In the present study, ITC data from our previous report for binding of di-, tri-, and tetravalent carbohydrate analogues possessing terminal 3,6-di-O-(alpha-D-mannopyranosyl)-alpha-D-mannopyranoside residues to ConA and DGL were subjected to Hill plot analysis. Hill plots of the binding of monovalent methyl 3,6-di-O-(alpha-D-mannopyranosyl)-alpha-D-mannopyranoside to ConA and DGL are linear with slopes near 1.0, demonstrating a lack of binding cooperativity and allosteric transitions in the proteins. However, Hill plots for the binding of the di-, tri-, and tetravalent trimannoside analogues to both lectins are curvilinear with decreasing tangent slopes below 1.0, indicating increasing negative cooperativity upon binding of the analogues to the lectins. The curvilinear Hill plots are consistent with decreasing affinity and functional valencies of the multivalent analogues upon sequential binding of lectin molecules to the carbohydrate epitopes of the analogues. The following paper [Dam, T. K., Roy, R., Pagé, D., and Brewer, C. F. (2002) Biochemistry 41, 1359-1363] provides direct evidence of the decreasing affinity constants of multivalent carbohydrates upon sequential binding of lectin molecules.     

Thermodynamic binding parameters of individual epitopes of multivalent carbohydrates to concanavalin a as determined by "reverse" isothermal titration microcalorimetry.

The preceding paper [Dam, T. K., Roy, R., Pagé, D., and Brewer, C. F. (2002) Biochemistry 41, 1351-1358] demonstrated that Hill plots of isothermal titration microcalorimetry (ITC) data for the binding of di-, tri-, and tetravalent carbohydrate analogues possessing terminal 3,6-di-O-(alpha-D-mannopyranosyl)-alpha-D-mannopyranoside residues to the lectin concanavalin A (ConA) show increasing negative cooperativity upon binding of the analogues to the lectin. The present study demonstrates "reverse" ITC experiments in which the lectin is titrated into solutions of di- and trivalent analogues. The results provide direct determinations of the thermodynamics of binding of ConA to the individual epitopes of the two multivalent analogues. The n values (number of binding sites per carbohydrate molecule) derived from reverse ITC demonstrate two functional binding epitopes on both the di- and trivalent analogues, confirming previous "normal" ITC results with the two carbohydrates [Dam, T. K., Roy, R., Das, S. K., Oscarson, S., and Brewer, C. F. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 14223-14230]. The reverse ITC measurements show an 18-fold greater microscopic affinity constant of ConA for the first epitope of the divalent analogue versus its second epitope and a 53-fold greater microscopic affinity constant of ConA binding to the first epitope of the trivalent analogue versus its second epitope. The data also demonstrate that the microscopic enthalpies of binding of the two epitopes on the di- and trivalent analogues are essentially the same and that differences in the microscopic K(a) values of the epitopes are due to their different microscopic entropies of binding values. These findings are consistent with the increasing negative Hill coefficients of these analogues binding to ConA in the previous paper.     

Binding and cross-linking properties of galectins

The galectins are a family of animal lectins that possess similar carbohydrate binding specificities and conserved consensus sequences. The biological properties of mammalian galectins include the regulation of inflammation, cell adhesion, cell proliferation and cell death. Evidence suggests that the biological activities of the galectins are related to their multivalent binding properties since most galectins possess two carbohydrate recognition domains and are therefore bivalent. For example, galectin-1, which is dimeric, binds and cross-links specific glycoprotein counter-receptors on the surface of human T-cells leading to apoptosis [J. Immunol. 163 (1999) 3801]. Different galectin-1 counter-receptors associated with specific phosphatase or kinase activities formed separate clusters on the surface of the cells as a result of the lectin binding to the carbohydrate chains of the respective glycoproteins. Importantly, monovalent galectin-1 is inactive in this system. This indicates that the separation and organization of signaling molecules that result from galectin-1 binding is involved in the apoptotic signal. The separation of specific glycoprotein receptors induced by galectin-1 binding was modeled on the basis of molecular and structural studies of the binding of lectins to multivalent carbohydrates resulting in the formation of specific two- and three-dimensional cross-linked lattices [Biochemistry 36 (1997) 15073]. In this article, the binding and cross-linking properties of galectin-1 and other lectins are reviewed as a model for the biological signal transduction properties of the galectin family of animal lectins.     

Quaternary solution structures of galectins-1, -3, and -7

Galectins are a growing family of animal lectins with functions in growth regulation and cell adhesion that bind beta-Gal residues in oligosaccharides. Evidence indicates that some of the biological properties of galectins are due to their cross-linking activities with multivalent glycoconjugate receptors. Therefore determination of the quaternary solution structures of these proteins is important in understanding their structure-function properties. The present study reports analytical sedimentation velocity and equilibrium data for galectins-1, -3, and -7 in the absence and presence of bound LacNAc, the natural ligand epitope. Galectin-1 from bovine heart and recombinant human galectin-7 were found to be stable dimers by both methods. In contrast, recombinant murine galectin-3, as well as its proteolytical derived C-terminal domain, are predominantly monomeric. The presence of LacNAc at concentrations sufficient to fully saturate the proteins had no significant effect on either the weight average molecular weight determined by sedimentation equilibrium or the hydrodynamic properties determined from sedimentation velocity experiments. These results show that binding of a monovalent ligand does not affect oligomerization of these galectins.     

Specific recognition of Leishmania major poly-beta-galactosyl epitopes by galectin-9: possible implication of galectin-9 in interaction between L. major and host cells

Leishmania parasites are the causative agents of leishmaniasis, manifesting itself in a species-specific manner. The glycan epitopes on the parasite are suggested to be involved in the Leishmania pathogenesis. One of such established species-unique glycan structures is the poly-beta-galactosyl epitope (Galbeta1-3)n found on L. major, which can develop cutaneous infections with strong inflammatory responses. Interestingly, the polygalactosyl epitope is also suggested to be involved in the development of the parasites in its host vector, sand fly. Thus, the recognition of the galactosyl epitope by lectins expressed in host or sand fly should be implicated in the species-specific manifestations of leishmaniasis and in the parasite life cycle, respectively. We recently reported that one host beta-galactoside-binding protein, galectin-3, can distinguish L. major from the other species through its binding to the poly-beta-galactosyl epitope, proposing a role for galectin-3 as an immunomodulator that could influence the L. major-specific immune responses in leishmaniasis. Here we report that galectin-9 can also recognize L. major by binding to the L. major-specific polygalactosyl epitope. Frontal affinity analysis with different lengths of poly-beta-galactosyllactose revealed that the galectin-9 affinity for polygalactose was enhanced in proportion to the number of Galbeta1-3 units present. Even though both galectins have comparable affinities toward the polygalactosyl epitopes, only galectin-9 can promote the interaction between L. major and macrophages, suggesting distinctive roles for the galectins in the L. major-specific development of leishmaniasis in the host.     

Multivalent protein-carbohydrate interactions. A new paradigm for supermolecular assembly and signal transduction

Many biological recognition processes involve the binding and clustering of ligand-receptor complexes and concomitant signal transduction events. Such interactions have recently been observed in human T cells in which binding and cross-linking of specific glycoprotein counter-receptors on the surface of the cells by an endogenous bivalent carbohydrate binding protein (galectin-1) leads to apoptosis [Pace, K. E., et al. (1999) J. Immunol. 163, 3801-3811]. Importantly, different counter-receptors associated with specific phosphatase or kinase activities were shown to form separate clusters on the surface of the cells as a result of galectin-1 binding to the carbohydrate moieties of the respective glycoproteins. This suggests that the unique separation and organization of signaling molecules that results from galectin-1 binding is involved in delivering the signal to die. The ability of galectin-1 to induce the separation of specific glycoprotein receptors was modeled on the basis of molecular and structural studies of the binding of multivalent carbohydrates to lectins that result in the formation of specific two- and three-dimensional cross-linked lattices. These latter studies have been recently highlighted by X-ray crystallographic results showing that a single tetravalent lectin forms distinct cross-linked complexes with four different bivalent oligosaccharides [Olsen, L. R., et al. (1997) Biochemistry 36, 15073-15080]. In this report, binding and cross-linking of multivalent carbohydrates with multivalent lectins is shown to be a new paradigm for supermolecular assembly and signal transduction in biological systems.     

Soluble beta-galactosyl-binding lectin (galectin) from toad ovary: crystallographic studies of two protein-sugar complexes

Galectin-1, S-type beta-galactosyl-binding lectins present in vertebrate and invertebrate species, are dimeric proteins that participate in cellular adhesion, activation, growth regulation, and apoptosis. Two high-resolution crystal structures of B. arenarum galectin-1 in complex with two related carbohydrates, LacNAc and TDG, show that the topologically equivalent hydroxyl groups in the two disaccharides exhibit identical patterns of interaction with the protein. Groups that are not equivalent between the two sugars present in the second moiety of the disaccharide, interact differently with the protein, but use the same number and quality of interactions. The structures show additional protein-carbohydrate interactions not present in previously reported lectin-lactose complexes. These contacts provide an explanation for the enhanced affinity of galectin-1 for TDG and LacNAc relative to lactose. Galectins are in dimer-monomer equilibrium at physiological protein concentrations, suggesting that this equilibrium may be involved in organ-specific regulation of activity. Comparison of B. arenarum with other galectin-1 structures shows that among different galectins there are significant changes in accessible surface area buried upon dimer formation, providing a rationale for the variations observed in the free-energies of dimerization. The structure of the B. arenarum galectin-1 has a large cleft with a strong negative potential that connects the two binding sites at the surface of the protein. Such a striking characteristic suggests that this cleft is probably involved in interactions of the galectin with other intra or extra-cellular proteins. Proteins 2000;40:378-388.     

Crystal structure of the galectin-9 N-terminal carbohydrate recognition domain from Mus musculus reveals the basic mechanism of carbohydrate recognition

The galectins are a family of beta-galactoside-binding animal lectins with a conserved carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD). They have a high affinity for small beta-galactosides, but binding specificity for complex glycoconjugates varies considerably within the family. The ligand recognition is essential for their proper function, and the structures of several galectins have suggested their mechanism of carbohydrate binding. Galectin-9 has two tandem CRDs with a short linker, and we report the crystal structures of mouse galectin-9 N-terminal CRD (NCRD) in the absence and the presence of four ligand complexes. All structures form the same dimer, which is quite different from the canonical 2-fold symmetric dimer seen for galectin-1 and -2. The beta-galactoside recognition mechanism in the galectin-9 NCRD is highly conserved among other galectins. In the apo form structure, water molecules mimic the ligand hydrogen-bond network. The galectin-9 NCRD can bind both N-acetyllactosamine (Galbeta1-4GlcNAc) and T-antigen (Galbeta1-3GalNAc) with the proper location of Arg-64. Moreover, the structure of the N-acetyllactosamine dimer (Galbeta1-4GlcNAcbeta1-3Galbeta1-4GlcNAc) complex shows a unique binding mode of galectin-9. Finally, surface plasmon resonance assay showed that the galectin-9 NCRD forms a homophilic dimer not only in the crystal but also in solution.     

Molecular dynamics simulations elucidate oligosaccharide recognition pathways by galectin-3 at atomic resolution

The recognition of carbohydrates by lectins plays key roles in diverse cellular processes such as cellular adhesion, proliferation, and apoptosis, which makes it a therapeutic target of significance against cancers. One of the most functionally active lectins, galectin-3 is distinctively known for its specific binding affinity toward β-galactoside. However, despite the prevalence of high-resolution crystallographic structures, the mechanistic basis and more significantly, the dynamic process underlying carbohydrate recognition by galectin-3 are currently elusive. To this end, we employed extensive Molecular Dynamics simulations to unravel the complete binding event of human galectin-3 with its native natural ligand N-acetyllactosamine (LacNAc) at atomic precision. The simulation trajectory demonstrates that the oligosaccharide diffuses around the protein and eventually identifies and binds to the biologically designated binding site of galectin-3 in real time. The simulated bound pose correlates with the crystallographic pose with atomic-level accuracy and recapitulates the signature stabilizing galectin-3/oligosaccharide interactions. The recognition pathway also reveals a set of transient non-native ligand poses in its course to the receptor. Interestingly, kinetic analysis in combination with a residue-level picture revealed that the key to the efficacy of a more active structural variant of the LacNAc lay in the ligand’s resilience against disassociation from galectin-3. By catching the ligand in the act of finding its target, our investigations elucidate the detailed recognition mechanism of the carbohydrate-binding domain of galectin-3 and underscore the importance of ligand–target binary complex residence time in understanding the structure–activity relationship of cognate ligands.     

Comparative cross-linking activities of lactose-specific plant and animal lectins and a natural lactose-binding immunoglobulin G fraction from human serum with asialofetuin

Plant and animal lectins bind and cross-link certain multiantennaryoligosaccharides, glycopeptides, and glycoproteins. This canlead to the formation of homogeneous cross-linked complexes,which may differ in their stoichiometry depending on the natureof the sugar receptor involved. As a precisely defined ligand,we have employed bovine asialofetuin (ASF), a glycoprotein thatpossesses three asparagine-linked triantennary complex carbohydratechains with terminal LacNAc residues. In the present study,we have compared the carbohydrate cross-linking properties oftwo Lac-specific plant lectins, an animal lectin and a naturallyoccurring Lac-binding polyclonal iminunoglobulin G subfractionfrom human serum with the ligand. Quantitative precipitationstudies of the Lac-specific plant lectins, Viscum album agglutininand Ricinus communis agglutinin, and the Lac-specific 16 kDadimenc galectin from chicken liver demonstrate that these lectinsform specific, stoichiometric cross-linked complexes with ASF.At low concentrations of ASF, 1:9 ASF/lectin (monomer) complexesformed with both plant lectins and the chicken lectin. Withincreasing concentrations of ASF, 1:3 ASF/lectin (monomer) complexesformed with the lectins irrespective of their source or size.The naturally occurring polyclonal antibodies, however, revealeda different cross-linking behavior. They show the formationof 1:3 ASF/antibody (per Fab moiety) cross-linked complexesat all concentrations of ASF. These studies demonstrate thatLac-specific plant and animal lectins as well as the Lac-bindingimmunoglobulin subfraction form specific stoichiometric cross-linkedcomplexes with ASF. These results are discussed in terms ofthe structure-function properties of multivalent lectins andantibodies. asialofetuin Lac-specific lectins immunoglobulin subfraction     

Galectin-3 precipitates as a pentamer with synthetic multivalent carbohydrates and forms heterogeneous cross-linked complexes

Galectin-3 is unique among the galectin family of animal lectins in its biological activities and structure. Most members of the galectin family including galectin-1 possess apoptotic activities, whereas galectin-3 possesses anti-apoptotic activity. Galectin-3 is also the only chimera type galectin and consists of a nonlectin N-terminal domain and a C-terminal carbohydrate-binding domain. Recent sedimentation equilibrium and velocity studies show that murine galectin-3 is a monomer in the absence and presence of LacNAc, a monovalent sugar. However, quantitative precipitation studies in the present report indicate that galectin-3 precipitates as a pentamer with a series of divalent pentasaccharides with terminal LacNAc residues. Furthermore, the kinetics of precipitation are fast, on the order of seconds. This indicates that although the majority of galectin-3 in solution is a monomer, a rapid equilibrium exists between the monomer and a small percentage of pentamer. The latter, in turn, precipitates with the divalent oligosaccharides, resulting in rapid conversion of monomer to pentamer by mass action equilibria. Mixed quantitative precipitation experiments and electron microscopy suggest that galectin-3 forms heterogenous, disorganized cross-linking complexes with the multivalent carbohydrates. This contrasts with galectin-1 and many plant lectins that form homogeneous, organized cross-linked complexes. The results are discussed in terms of the biological properties of galectin-3.     

Structural analysis of the recognition mechanism of poly-N-acetyllactosamine by the human galectin-9 N-terminal carbohydrate recognition domain

Galectins are a family of beta-galactoside-specific lectins bearing a conserved carbohydrate recognition domain. Interactions between galectins and poly-N-acetyllactosamine sequences are critical in a variety of biological processes. Galectin-9, a member of the galectin family, has two carbohydrate recognition domains at both the N- and C-terminal regions. Here we report the crystal structure of the human galectin-9 N-terminal carbohydrate recognition domain in complex with N-acetyllactosamine dimers and trimers. These complex structures revealed that the galectin-9 N-terminal carbohydrate recognition domain can recognize internal N-acetyllactosamine units within poly-N-acetyllactosamine chains. Based on these complex structures, we propose two putative recognition modes for poly-N-acetyllactosamine binding by galectins.     

Fishing for lectins from diverse sequence libraries by yeast surface display - an exploratory study

The establishment of a robust technology platform for the expression cloning of carbohydrate-binding proteins remains a key challenge in glycomics. Here we explore the utility of using yeast surface display (YSD) technology in the interaction-based lectin cloning from complete cDNA libraries. This should pave the way for more detailed studies of protein-carbohydrate interactions. To evaluate the performance of this system, lectins representing three different subfamilies (galectins, siglecs, and C-type lectins) were successfully displayed on the surface of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris as a-agglutinin and/or alpha-agglutinin fusions. The predicted carbohydrate-binding activity could be detected for three out of five lectins tested (galectin-1, galectin-3, and siaoadhesin). For galectin-4 and E-selectin, no specific carbohydrate-binding activity could be detected. We also demonstrate that proteins with carbohydrate affinity can be specifically isolated from complex metazoan cDNA libraries through multiple rounds of FACS sorting, employing multivalent, fluorescent-labeled polyacrylamide-based glycoconjugates.     

A Combined Molecular Modelling and CIDNP Study of Similarities in the Pattern of Ligand Binding in Mammalian and Avian Galectins

Galectins (Galactose binding lectins) from bacteria, plants and animals have been shown to possess tyrosine or tryptophan residues that form hydrophobic contacts with their ligands in the binding sites. At the present time, the X-ray structures of only two galectins from human and bovine tissues are known. In the present study we applied X-ray data of bovine heart galectin-1 as a template for homology modelling of a number of galectins from mammalian and avian tissues. The conservation of one tryptophan and at least one histidine in binding pocket can be observed from the comparison of the model structures. We also show that it is possible to obtain information of the architecture of the binding pocket of several galectins in solution using CIDNP (Chemically Induced Dynamic Nuclear Polarisation) techniques. The CIDNP approach offers a possibility to analyse these lectins in solution thereby providing supplementary information to the available X-ray data. All studied galectins show comparable alterations when they are recorded by CIDNP-technique in the absence and in the presence of their specific carbohydrate ligands.     

Persubstituted cyclodextrin-based glycoclusters as inhibitors of protein-carbohydrate recognition using purified plant and mammalian lectins and wild-type and lectin-gene-transfected tumor cells as targets

Multivalent glycoclusters have the potential to become pharmaceuticals by virtue of their target specificity toward clinically relevant sugar receptors. Their application can also provide fundamental insights into the impact of two spatial factors on binding, i.e., topologies of ligand (branching mode, cluster presentation) and carbohydrate recognition domains in lectins. Persubstituted macrocycles derived from nucleophilic substitution of iodide from heptakis 6-deoxy-6-iodo-beta-cyclodextrin by the unprotected sodium thiolate of 3-(3-thioacetyl propionamido)propyl glycosides (galactose, lactose and N-acetyllactosamine) were prepared. The produced glycoclusters were first tested as competitive inhibitors in solid-phase assays. A plant toxin from mistletoe and an immunoglobulin G fraction from human serum were markedly susceptible. A nearly 400-fold increase in inhibitory potency of each galactose moiety in the heptavalent form relative to free lactose (217-fold relative to free galactose) was detected. Thus, these glycoclusters can efficiently interfere, for example, with xenoantigen-dependent hyperacute rejection. Among the tested galectins selected from this family of adhesion- and growth-regulatory endogenous lectins, the substituted beta-cyclodextrins acted as sensors to delineate topological differences between the two dimeric prototype proteins. The relatively strong reactivity with chimera-type galectin-3, a mediator of tumor metastasis, disclosed selectivity for glycocluster binding among galectins. Equally important, the geometry of ligand display (maxiclusters, bi- or triantennary N-glycans) made its mark on the inhibitory potency. To further determine the sensitivity of a distinct galectin presented on the cell surface and not in solution, we established a stably transfected tumor cell clone. We detected a significant response to presence of the multivalent inhibitor. This type of chemical scaffold with favorable pharmacologic properties might thus be exploited for the design of galectin- and ligand-type-selective glycoclusters.