Expression of IL-17 in human memory CD45RO+ T lymphocytes and its regulation by protein kinase A pathway.

In the present study, the authors compared the interleukin 17 (IL-17 expression of human naive and phenotypically defined memory T cells as well as its regulation by cAMP pathway. Our data showed that IL-17 mRNA was highly expressed in memory human peripheral CD8(+)45RO+T cells and CD4(+)45RO+T cells when peripheral blood mononuclear cells were first stimulated with ionomycin/PMA. IL-17 expression in memory CD8(+)T cells required accessory signals since culture of ionomycin/PMA-activated CD8(+)45RO+T cells alone did not result to IL-17 expression. In contrast, memory CD4(+)T cell population seems to be more independent. IL-17 and interferon gamma(IFN-gamma) mRNA were both inhibited in the presence of PGE2 or the cAMP analogue (dibutyryl-cAMP), while the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was highly increased. In contrast, naive CD45RA+T cells were unable to express IL-17 whatever the culture conditions. Naive CD4(+)and CD8(+)T cells were sensitive to the PKA regulatory pathway since they represent a significant source of IL-10 when PBMC were first cultured with ionomycin/PMA in the presence of either PGE2 or db-cAMP. The authors showed that naive cells are highly dependent to their microenvironment, since culture of ionomycin/PMA-activated CD45RA+T cells alone did not result in detectable levels of cytokines even in the presence of PGE2. Results also showed that PGE2 induced quite the same levels of intracellular cAMP in naive and memory cells suggesting that these cell populations are equally sensitive to PGE2. However, we suggest that PGE2 may be more efficient in blocking both IL-17 and IFN-gamma expression in already primed memory T cells, rather than in suppressing naive T cells that could represent a significant source of IL-10. Data suggest that PKA activation pathway plays a critical role in the regulation of cytokine profiles and consequently the functional properties of both human naive and memory CD4(+) and CD8(+)T cells during the immune and inflammatory processes.     

Long-term CD4+ memory T cells from the spleen lack MEL-14, the lymph node homing receptor.

We have characterized the surface phenotype and function of long-lived, Ag-specific memory CD4+ T cells generated in vivo by immunization with keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH). CD4+ T cells from the spleens of mice primed more than 2 mo previously with KLH, produced high levels of IL-2 and IL-3, and low levels of IL-4 and IFN-gamma in response to in vitro restimulation with specific Ag. The KLH-primed T cells mediated carrier-specific helper activity for the antibody production by NIP-primed B cells in secondary in vitro responses to NIP-KLH. Subsets of CD4+ T cells from KLH-primed mice were isolated on the basis of surface CD45RB (23G2) by magnetic separation and were examined for functional capacity in several assays of Ag-specific recall. Virtually all of the secretion of IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, and IFN-gamma in response to restimulation with Ag in vitro was associated with, and considerably enriched in, the CD45RB- subset of CD4+ T cells. Similarly, carrier-specific helper function and Ag-specific proliferation in vitro were also confined to the CD45RB-, CD4+ subset of T cells, confirming the previous association of this surface phenotype with memory Th cell activity. We also examined expression of the lymphocyte homing receptor, MEL-14 (gp90MEL), which is required for lymphocyte extravasation to peripheral lymph nodes and is present in high levels on naive T cells. MEL-14 positive and negative subsets of CD4+ T cells from long term KLH-primed mice were evaluated for Ag-specific memory function in terms of lymphokine production, Ag-induced proliferation, and helper activity. Each of these functions was associated exclusively with the MEL-14- subset of CD4+ T cells, which exhibited responses comparable to the CD45RB- subset. These data indicate that memory Th cell function in the spleen is contained within the MEL-14-, CD45RB- subset of CD4+ T cells and suggest that memory helper cells may have different patterns of recirculation from naive T cells.     

Human effector memory CD4+ T cells directly recognize allogeneic endothelial cells in vitro and in vivo

The frequency of circulating alloreactive human memory T cells correlates with allograft rejection. Memory T cells may be divided into effector memory (T(EM)) and central memory (T(CM)) cell subsets, but their specific roles in allograft rejection are unknown. We report that CD4+ T(EM) (CD45RO+ CCR7- CD62L-) can be adoptively transferred readily into C.B-17 SCID/bg mice and mediate the destruction of human endothelial cells (EC) in vascularized human skin grafts allogeneic to the T cell donor. In contrast, CD4+ T(CM) (CD45RO+ CCR7+ CD62L+) are inefficiently transferred and do not mediate EC injury. In vitro, CD4+ T(EM) secrete more IFN-gamma within 48 h in response to allogeneic ECs than do T(CM). In contrast, T(EM) and T(CM) secrete comparable amounts of IFN-gamma in response to allogeneic monocytes (Mo). In the same cultures, both T(EM) and T(CM) produce IL-2 and proliferate in response to IFN-gamma-treated allogeneic human EC or Mo, but T(CM) respond more vigorously in both assays. Blockade of LFA-3 strongly inhibits both IL-2 and IFN-gamma secretion by CD4+ T(EM) cultured with allogeneic EC but only minimally inhibits responses to allogeneic Mo. Blockade of CD80 and CD86 strongly inhibits IL-2 but not IFN-gamma production by in response to allogeneic EC or Mo. Transduction of EC to express B7-2 enhances allogeneic T(EM) production of IL-2 but not IFN-gamma. We conclude that human CD4+ T(EM) directly recognize and respond to allogeneic EC in vitro by secreting IFN-gamma and that this response depends on CD2 but not CD28. Consistent with EC activation of effector functions, human CD4+ T(EM) can mediate allogeneic EC injury in vivo.     

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccination of human newborns induces T cells with complex cytokine and phenotypic profiles

The immune response to vaccination with bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), the only tuberculosis vaccine available, has not been fully characterized. We used multiparameter flow cytometry to examine specific T cell cytokine production and phenotypic profiles in blood from 10-wk-old infants routinely vaccinated with BCG at birth. Ex vivo stimulation of whole blood with BCG for 12 h induced expression of predominantly IFN-gamma, IL-2, and TNF-alpha in CD4+ T cells in seven distinct cytokine combinations. IL-4 and IL-10 expression was detected in CD4+ T cells at low frequencies and only in cells that did not coexpress type 1 cytokines. Specific CD8+ T cells were less frequent than CD4+ T cells and produced mainly IFN-gamma and/or IL-2 and less TNF-alpha, IL-4, and IL-10. Importantly, many mycobacteria-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells did not produce IFN-gamma. The predominant phenotype of BCG-specific type 1 T cells was that of effector cells, i.e., CD45RA-CCR7-CD27+, which may reflect persistence of Mycobacterium bovis BCG in infants until 10 wk of age. Among five phenotypic patterns of CD4+ T cells, central memory cells were more likely to be IL-2+ and effector cells were more likely to be IFN-gamma+. We concluded that neonatal vaccination with BCG induces T cells with a complex pattern of cytokine expression and phenotypes. Measuring IFN-gamma production alone underestimates the magnitude and complexity of the host cytokine response to BCG vaccination and may not be an optimal readout in studies of BCG and novel tuberculosis vaccination.     

Tumor-specific Tc1, but not Tc2, cells deliver protective antitumor immunity.

We investigated whether secretion of multiple cytokines by CD8+ T cells is associated with improved protection against tumor challenge. We show that antitumor immunity induced by immunization with dendritic cells and a MHC class I-binding tumor peptide are dependent on secretion of IFN-gamma but not IL-4 or IL-5 by host cells. To further address the role of IL-4 and IL-5 in antitumor immunity, tumor-specific TCR-transgenic CD8+ T cells were activated in vitro to generate cytotoxic T (Tc) 1 cells that secrete high IFN-gamma and no IL-4 or IL-5 or Tc2 cells that secrete IL-4, IL-5, and some IFN-gamma. Both cell types killed target cells in vitro. Tc1 and Tc2 cells were adoptively transferred into syngeneic hosts, and their ability to protect against tumor challenge was compared. Tc1 cells were able to significantly delay tumor growth, whereas Tc2 cells or Tc2 cells from IFN-gamma(-/-) donors had no effect. This was due to neither the inability of Tc2 cells to survive in vivo or to migrate to the tumor site nor their inability to secrete IL-4 and/or IL-5 in the presence of limiting amounts of anti-CD3. However, IFN-gamma secretion by Tc2 cells was triggered inefficiently by restimulation with Ag compared with anti-CD3. We conclude that the ability to secrete "type 2" cytokines, and cytotoxic ability, have a limited role in antitumor immune responses mediated by CD8+ T cells, whereas the capacity to secrete high amounts of IFN-gamma remains the most critical antitumor effector mechanism in vivo.     

Identification of new cytokine combinations for antigen-specific T-cell therapy products via a high-throughput multi-parameter assay

Infusion of viral-specific T cells (VSTs) is an effective treatment for viral infection after stem cell transplant. Current manufacturing approaches are rapid, but growth conditions can still be further improved. To optimize VST cell products, the authors designed a high-throughput flow cytometry-based assay using 40 cytokine combinations in a 96-well plate to fully characterize T-cell viability, function, growth and differentiation. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from six consenting donors were seeded at 100 000 cells per well with pools of cytomegalovirus peptides from IE1 and pp65 and combinations of IL-15, IL-6, IL-21, interferon alpha, IL-12, IL-18, IL-4 and IL-7. Ten-day cultures were tested by 13-color flow cytometry to evaluate viable cell count, lymphocyte phenotype, memory markers and interferon gamma (IFNγ) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) expression. Combinations of IL-15/IL-6 and IL-4/IL-7 were optimal for the expansion of viral-specific CD3+ T cells, (18-fold and 14-fold, respectively, compared with unstimulated controls). CD8+ T cells expanded 24-fold in IL-15/IL-6 and 9-fold in IL-4/IL-7 cultures (P < 0.0001). CD4+ T cells expanded 27-fold in IL-4/IL-7 and 15-fold in IL-15/IL-6 (P < 0.0001). CD45RO+ CCR7– effector memory (CD45RO+ CCR7– CD3+), central memory (CD45RO+ CCR7+ CD3+), terminal effector (CD45RO– CCR7– CD3+), and naive (CD45RO– CCR7+ CD3+). T cells were the preponderant cells (76.8% and 72.3% in IL-15/IL-6 and IL-15/IL-7 cultures, respectively). Cells cultured in both cytokine conditions were potent, with 19.4% of CD3+ cells cultured in IL-15/IL-6 producing IFNγ (7.6% producing both TNFα and IFNγ) and 18.5% of CD3+ cells grown in IL-4/IL-7 producing IFNγ (9% producing both TNFα and IFNγ). This study shows the utility of this single-plate assay to rapidly identify optimal growth conditions for VST manufacture using only 10⁷ PBMCs.     

Expression of CD161 (NKR-P1A) defines subsets of human CD4 and CD8 T cells with different functional activities

A subset of T cells in human peripheral blood expresses CD161 (NKR-P1A) receptors that are primarily associated with NK cells. In the current study we isolated blood T cell subsets according to the expression of CD161 and examined their contents of naive, central memory, and effector memory cells and their capacities for proliferation, cytokine secretion, and natural cytolysis. We found that CD4+CD161- and CD8+CD161- subsets contained predominantly naive T cells that secreted high levels of IL-2 after in vitro stimulation, and CD4+CD161int and CD8+CD161int subsets contained predominantly effector and central memory T cells that secreted high levels of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha. All of these subsets showed vigorous proliferation after stimulation in vitro, but none had NK lytic activity. Unexpectedly, the CD8+CD161+ cells contained an anergic CD8alpha+CD8betalow/-CD161high T cell subset that failed to proliferate, secrete cytokines, or mediate NK lytic activity.     

Cytokine secretion by C3H-lpr and -gld T cells. Hypersecretion of IFN-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha by stimulated CD4+ T cells.

Mice homozygous for lpr and gld develop profound lymphadenopathy characterized by the expansion of two unusual T cell subsets, a predominant Ly-5(B220)+ CD4- CD8- double negative (DN) population and a minor CD4 dull+ Ly-5(B220)+ population. The mechanisms promoting lymphoproliferation are unknown, but one possibility is a abnormality in the production of cytokines that regulate T cell growth. In the present report, unfractionated LN cells and sorted T cell subsets from C3H-lpr, -gld, and -+/+ mice were compared for spontaneous and induced secretion of a spectrum of lymphokines. In addition, CD4+, CD4 dull+ Ly-5(B220)+, and DN T cells were examined for expression of CD3 epsilon, TCR-alpha/beta heterodimers, Ly-6C, and CD44 and for proliferative responses to immobilized anti-TCR mAb and cofactors. These studies revealed that sorted DN T cells did not secrete IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, GM-CSF, TNF-alpha, or IFN-gamma spontaneously or after TCR-alpha/beta cross-linking. In contrast, stimulated unfractionated lpr and gld LN cells proliferated strongly and secreted high levels of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha and low levels of IL-3, IL-4, and IL-6. Despite a 5- to 10-fold deficit in the frequency of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, cytokine secretion by lpr and gld LN generally exceeded that of +/+ LN. Comparisons of cytokine secretion by stimulated CD4+ T cells revealed that +/+, lpr, and gld CD4+ Ly-5(B220)- T cells proliferated strongly, but only lpr and gld cells produced significant levels of IFN-gamma. The lpr and gld CD4+ T cells also produced higher levels of TNF-alpha and IL-2 than +/+ cells. In contrast to normal CD4+ T cells, lpr and gld CD4+ Ly-5(B220)+ T cells proliferated weakly and did not secrete TNF-alpha, IL-2, or, in most experiments, IFN-gamma after stimulation. Phenotypic studies of T cell subsets revealed that unstimulated lpr and gld CD4+ Ly-5(B220)- T cells express significantly higher levels of CD44 than +/+ CD4+ T cells. In addition, CD4 dull+ Ly-5(B220)+ cells closely resembled DN T cells in size and expression of TCR-alpha/beta, CD3epsilon, CD44, and Ly-6C. Since elevated CD44 expression is generally associated with T cell activation and only previously activated normal CD4+ T cells produce high levels of IFN-gamma in vitro, our data suggest that lpr and gld CD4+ Ly-5(B220)- T cells contain a higher than normal proportion of primed or memory T cells and thus may be polyclonally activated in vivo.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Comparative roles of IL-4, IL-13, and IL-4Ralpha in dendritic cell maturation and CD4+ Th2 cell function

IL-4 and IL-13 play key roles in Th2 immunity and asthma pathogenesis. Although the function of these cytokines is partially linked through their shared use of IL-4Ralpha for signaling, the interplay between these cytokines in the development of memory Th2 responses is not well delineated. In this investigation, we show that both IL-4 and IL-13 influence the maturation of dendritic cells (DC) in the lung and their ability to regulate secretion of IFN-gamma and Th2 cytokines by memory CD4(+) T cells. Cocultures of wild-type T cells with pulmonary DC from allergic, cytokine-deficient mice demonstrated that IL-4 enhanced the capacity of DC to stimulate T cell secretion of Th2 cytokines, whereas IL-13 enhanced the capacity of DC to suppress T cell secretion of IFN-gamma. Because IL-4Ralpha is critical for IL-4 and IL-13 signaling, we also determined how variants of IL-4Ralpha influenced immune cell function. T cells derived from allergic mice expressing a high-affinity IL-4Ralpha variant produced higher levels of IL-5 and IL-13 compared with T cells derived from allergic mice expressing a low-affinity IL-4Ralpha variant. Although DC expressing different IL-4Ralpha variants did not differ in their capacity to influence Th2 cytokine production, they varied in their capacity to inhibit IFN-gamma production by T cells. Thus, IL-4 and IL-13 differentially regulate DC function and the way these cells regulate T cells. The affinity of IL-4Ralpha also appears to be a determinant in the balance between Th2 and IFN-gamma responses and thus the severity of allergic disease.     

IL-10 is excluded from the functional cytokine memory of human CD4+ memory T lymphocytes

Epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation, profoundly influence gene expression of CD4(+) Th-specific cells thereby shaping memory Th cell function. We demonstrate here a correlation between a lacking fixed potential of human memory Th cells to re-express the immunoregulatory cytokine gene IL10 and its DNA methylation status. Memory Th cells secreting IL-10 or IFN-gamma were directly isolated ex vivo from peripheral blood of healthy volunteers, and the DNA methylation status of IL10 and IFNG was assessed. Limited difference in methylation was found for the IL10 gene locus in IL-10-secreting Th cells, as compared with Th cells not secreting IL-10 isolated directly ex vivo or from in vitro-established human Th1 and Th2 clones. In contrast, in IFN-gamma(+) memory Th cells the promoter of the IFNG gene was hypomethylated, as compared with IFN-gamma-nonsecreting memory Th cells. In accordance with the lack of epigenetic memory, almost 90% of ex vivo-isolated IL-10-secreting Th cells lacked a functional memory for IL-10 re-expression after restimulation. Our data indicate that IL10 does not become epigenetically marked in human memory Th cells unlike effector cytokine genes such as IFNG. The exclusion of IL-10, but not effector cytokines, from the functional memory of human CD4(+) T lymphocytes ex vivo may reflect the need for appropriate regulation of IL-10 secretion, due to its potent immunoregulatory potential.     

Profound enhancement of the IL-12/IL-18 pathway of IFN-gamma secretion in human CD8+ memory T cell subsets via IL-15

Human memory CD8(+) T cell subsets, termed central memory and effector memory T cells, can be identified by expression of CD45RA, CD62 ligand (CD62L), and CCR7. Accordingly, functional differences have been described for each subset, reflecting unique roles in immunological memory. The common gamma-chain cytokines IL-15 and IL-7 have been shown to induce proliferation and differentiation of human CD8(+) T cell subsets, as well as increased effector functions (i.e., cytokines, cytotoxicity). In this study, we observed that addition of IL-15 or IL-7 to cultures of human CD8(+) T cells profoundly enhanced the IL-12-IL-18 pathway of IFN-gamma production. Importantly, IL-15 and IL-7 lowered the threshold concentrations of IL-12 and IL-18 required for induction of IFN-gamma by 100-fold. Comparison of IL-15 and IL-7 demonstrated that IL-15 was superior in its ability to enhance IL-12-IL-18-induced IFN-gamma, without evidence of a synergistic effect between IL-15 and IL-7. We also observed that IL-15- and IL-7-mediated enhancement of IL-12-IL-18-induced IFN-gamma production was a functional property of effector memory CD8(+) T cells. Despite a lack of association between cell division and acquisition of IL-12-IL-18-induced IFN-gamma, down-regulation of CD62L expression correlated well with increased IL-12-IL-18-induced IFN-gamma. Purified central memory T cells stimulated with IL-15 and IL-7 down-regulated CD62L and acquired potent IL-12-IL-18-induced IFN-gamma similar to effector memory T cells. Thus, in addition to its known role in development of T cell memory, IL-15 may amplify memory CD8(+) T cell effector functions by increasing sensitivity to proinflammatory cytokine stimulation.     

p38 alpha mitogen-activated protein kinase is activated by CD28-mediated signaling and is required for IL-4 production by human CD4+CD45RO+ T cells and Th2 effector cells.

T cell proliferation and cytokine production usually require stimulation via both the TCR/CD3 complex and the CD28 costimulatory receptor. Using purified human CD4+ peripheral blood T cells, we show that CD28 stimulation alone activates p38 alpha mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 alpha). Cell proliferation induced by CD28 stimulation alone, a response attributed to CD4+CD45RO+ memory T cells, was blocked by the highly specific p38 inhibitors SB 203580 (IC50 = 10-80 nM) and RWJ 67657 (IC50 = 0.5-4 nM). In contrast, proliferation induced by anti-CD3 plus anti-CD28 mAbs was not blocked. Inhibitors of p38 also blocked CD4+ T cell production of IL-4 (SB 203580 IC50 = 20-100 nM), but not IL-2, in response to CD3 and CD28 stimulation. IL-5, TNF-alpha, and IFN-gamma production were also inhibited, but to a lesser degree than IL-4. IL-4 production was attributed to CD4+CD45RO+ T cells, and its induction was suppressed by p38 inhibitors at the mRNA level. In polarized Th1 and Th2 cell lines, SB 203580 strongly inhibited IL-4 production by Th2 cells (IC50 = 10-80 nM), but only partially inhibited IFN-gamma and IL-2 production by Th1 cells (<50% inhibition at 1 microM). In both Th1 and Th2 cells, CD28 signaling activated p38 alpha and was required for cytokine production. These results show that p38 alpha plays an important role in some, but not all, CD28-dependent cellular responses. Its preferential involvement in IL-4 production by CD4+CD45RO+ T cells and Th2 effector cells suggests that p38 alpha may be important in the generation of Th2-type responses in humans.     

Direct stimulation of human T cells via TLR5 and TLR7/8: flagellin and R-848 up-regulate proliferation and IFN-gamma production by memory CD4+ T cells

TLRs are involved in innate cell activation by conserved structures expressed by microorganisms. Human T cells express the mRNA encoding most of TLRs. Therefore, we tested whether some TLR ligands may modulate the function of highly purified human CD4+ T lymphocytes. We report that, in the absence of APCs, flagellin (a TLR5 ligand) and R-848 (a TLR7/8 ligand) synergized with suboptimal concentrations of TCR-dependent (anti-CD3 mAb) or -independent stimuli (anti-CD2 mAbs or IL-2) to up-regulate proliferation and IFN-gamma, IL-8, and IL-10 but not IL-4 production by human CD4+ T cells. No effect of poly(I:C) and LPS, ligands for TLR3 and TLR4, respectively, was detected. We also observed that CD4+CD45RO+ memory T cell responses to TLR ligands were more potent than those observed with CD4+CD45RA+ naive T cells. Moreover, among the memory T cells, CCR7- effector cells were more sensitive to TLR ligands than CCR7+ central memory cells. These data demonstrate for the first time a direct effect of TLR5 and TLR7/8 ligands on human T cells, and highlight an innate arm in T cell functions. They also suggest that some components from invading microorganisms may directly stimulate effector memory T cells located in tissues by up-regulating cytokine and chemokine production.     

Increased specific T cell cytokine responses in patients with active pulmonary tuberculosis from Central Africa

An understanding of T cell responses that are crucial for control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) has major implications for the development of immune-based interventions. We studied the frequency of purified protein derivative (PPD)-specific CD3) cells expressing interleukin-2 (IL)-2, gamma interferon (IFN)-gamma, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and IL-10 in HIV-negative pulmonary tuberculosis patients (TB, n=30) as well as in healthy individuals (controls, n=21) from Central Africa. Increased frequencies of PPD-stimulated CD3+ cells expressing IL-2, IFN-gamma, and TNF-alpha in TB were seen when compared with frequencies of controls. The presence of type 1 cytokine biased responses in TB patients was supported by a shift in the distribution pattern of cytokine expression from exclusively IL-2 or TNF-alpha expression seen in controls towards an increased frequency of IFN-gamma/IL-2 or IFN-gamma/TNF-alpha co-expression in TB. Higher levels of PPD-induced IFN-gamma in the supernatants from TB patients than from controls were found, which correlated with its intracellular expression. PPD was a weak inducer of IL-10 in T cells and insufficient in promoting cytokine production in TCRgammadelta+CD3+ cells. Non-specific stimulation with PMA and ionomycin revealed increased frequencies of CD4+ cells expressing IFN-gamma in controls, while expression of IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, and TNF-alpha was not different. Non-specific cytokine responses of TCRgammadelta+CD3+ cells were similar in all groups. Pulmonary TB in Central Africa is associated with enhanced expression and secretion of specifically induced cytokines that are frequently implicated in host defense against MTB.     

Age-associated changes in interferon-γ and interleukin-4 secretion by purified human CD4+ and CD8+ T cells

Aging is associated with a decline in immune function. Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-4 (IL-4), two important immune deviation-related cytokines, are mainly produced by type 1 and type 2 T cells, respectively. To investigate the age-associated changes in the secretion of these two cytokines, 20 elderly and 20 young subjects fulfilling the SENIEUR protocol were enrolled. The ratios of CD4+ to CD8+ T cells were not different between the two age groups. The CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were purified by a magnetic cell sorting system, and then activated by concurrent anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 stimulation. The released cytokines were determined by ELISA. Both the CD4+ and the CD8+ T cells of the elderly individuals secreted a significantly larger amount of IFN-gamma after activation. Profound IL-4 production by CD8+ T cells was observed in the older subjects compared with that of the young subjects. These data suggested that age-associated decrease in immunity may be related to an imbalance in the secretion of immune deviation cytokines. The number of IL-4-secreting CD8+ T cells (T cytotoxic 2) rose significantly in the older individuals. Our design also provided a useful way to differentiate the T cell subsets secreting the same cytokine, such as IFN-gamma-producing T helper 1 and T cytotoxic 1 cells.     

Functional plasticity in memory T helper cell responses

Following activation, naive CD4+ Th cells can differentiate to selectively produce either the Th1 lineage-specific cytokine IFN-gamma or the Th2 cytokine IL-4 and, in so doing, lose the capacity to produce cytokines of the alternative lineage. Lineage commitment of murine CD4+ T cells has largely been considered to be absolute with little flexibility to produce cytokines of the opposing lineage. In this study, we demonstrate that cells within Th2 memory populations can produce IFN-gamma if reactivated in vivo in the context of an innate response that favors Th1 cell development. Likewise, cells within Th1 memory populations produce IL-4 when challenged under conditions that promote Th2 responses. Both effector and unpolarized central memory cells retain the potential to produce cytokines that were not made during the primary response. These findings reveal that both effector and central memory Th1 and Th2 cells possess the capacity to respond to environmental cues to produce pathogen-appropriate cytokines of the opposing lineage.     

Maturation of adult peripheral blood CD38(+)CD4(+) T cells demonstrated by cytokine production in response to a superantigen,TSST-1

This study looks at immunoincompetent CD4(+) T cells in adult peripheral blood (APB) using cytokine production in response to a superantigen as a measure of function. We compared the function of APB CD38(+)CD4(+) and CD38(-/low)CD4(+) T cells to that of cord blood (CB) CD4(+) T cells. APB CD4(+) T cell blasts produce substantial amounts of IL-2 in response to TSST-1 restimulation, while CB CD4(+) T cell blasts produce less. APB CD38(+)CD4(+) T cells produce low levels of IL-4 and IFN-gamma in response to TSST-1, even after activation, while APB CD38(-/low)CD4(+) T cells retain their ability to produce high levels of these cytokines despite high CD38 expression. These results suggest that the developmental stage of APB CD38(+)CD4(+) T cells lies between that of CB CD4(+) T cells and APB CD38(-/low)CD4(+) T cells and that APB CD38(+)CD45RO(-)CD4(+) T cells gradually cease to express CD38 as they acquire full function. We reconsider CD4(+) cell maturation and response to TSST-1 and discuss the implications of T cell maturity on infectious diseases.     

CD4+ T cell subsets. Lymphokine secretion of memory cells and of effector cells that develop from precursors in vitro

We have studied the properties of several developmentally defined subpopulations of CD4+ T cells from normal animals which can be stimulated to secrete lymphokines. We find that the Th cells responsible for direct secretion of lymphokines after stimulation are from a resting, very long lived subpopulation of CD4+ T cells which persists for over 25 wk after adult thymectomy. These T cells are depleted by in vivo administration of antithymocyte serum and they are enriched among T cells which express high levels of Pgp-1. This phenotype suggests that the T cells responsible are most likely memory T cells which have resulted from antigen exposure in vivo. T cells in this subset secrete predominantly IL-2 with small quantities of IL-3, granulocyte/macrophage CSF, and IFN-gamma. In contrast, the CD4+ T cells which require in vitro culture and restimulation before they develop into an effector population with the ability to secrete lymphokines after restimulation, differ dramatically by most of these criteria. The precursors we study are resting Th cells which are considerably shorter lived after adult thymectomy (5 to 10 wk) and resistant to the same doses of antithymocyte serum which deplete the putative memory population. We hypothesize that this precursor population represents naive helper cells which have not yet encountered Ag. The effectors derived from such precursors can be stimulated to secrete high levels of both Th cell types 1 and 2 lymphokines (IFN-gamma, IL-4, IL-5, granulocyte/macrophage CSF, and IL-3). Generation of effectors requires proliferation and differentiation events which occur during a mandatory culture with lymphokines and antigen presenting cells for 3 to 4 days. We discuss the striking phenotypic and functional differences among these subpopulations of helper cells--the precursor population and the two types--memory and cultured effector Th which secrete lymphokines. We also discuss the relationship of these populations to CD4+ T cell subsets defined by other studies of patterns of lymphokine secretion and by cell surface phenotype.     

Induction of cytokines in mice with parainfluenza pneumonia.

The possible involvement of cytokines in the acute viral pneumonia induced by the murine parainfluenza type 1 virus, Sendai virus, was studied. Cytokine profiles for both the respiratory tract and the draining mediastinal lymph node (MLN) of virus-infected C57BL/6J mice were quantified by using the single-cell cytokine (ELISPOT) assay with freshly isolated cell populations and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for lung lavage fluids and culture supernatants. Maximal levels of interleukin 2 (IL-2), gamma interferon (IFN-gamma), tumor necrosis factor, IL-6, and IL-10 were detected at the inflammatory site 7 to 10 days after infection, about the time that virus is cleared from the lung. The frequencies of cells producing IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IFN-gamma, and tumor necrosis factor were much higher for the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cell population than for the MLN cell population. Cytokine production after in vitro restimulation of MLN cells was dominated by IL-2 and IFN-gamma, with low levels of IL-10 and IL-6 also being present. Most of the cytokine was produced by the CD4+ cells, although the CD8+ subset was also involved. No IL-4 was found in the BAL fluid or in culture supernatants from restimulated BAL or MLN cells, although a high frequency of IL-4-producing cells was demonstrated in the BAL population by ELISPOT analysis.     

Regulation of IL-17 in human CCR6+ effector memory T cells

IL-17-secreting T cells represent a distinct CD4(+) effector T cell lineage (Th17) that appears to be essential in the pathogenesis of numerous inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Although extensively studied in the murine system, human Th17 cells have not been well characterized. In this study, we identify CD4(+)CD45RO(+)CCR7(-)CCR6(+) effector memory T cells as the principal IL-17-secreting T cells. Human Th17 cells have a unique cytokine profile because the majority coexpress TNF-alpha but not IL-6 and a minor subset express IL-17 with IL-22 or IL-17 and IFN-gamma. We demonstrate that the cytokines that promote the differentiation of human naive T cells into IL-17-secreting cells regulate IL-17 production by memory T cells. IL-1beta alone or in association with IL-23 and IL-6 markedly increase IL-17(+) CCR6(+) memory T cells and induce IL-17 production in CCR6(-) memory T cells. We also show that T cell activation induces Foxp3 expression in T cells and that the balance between the percentage of Foxp3(+) and IL-17(+) T cells is inversely influenced by the cytokine environment. These studies suggest that the cytokine environment may play a critical role in the expansion of memory T cells in chronic autoimmune diseases.