Effects of Microcystis aeruginosa on interference competition between Daphnia pulex and Keratella cochlearis

Laboratory experiments tested the hypothesis that a toxic strain of Microcystis aeruginosa decreases the ability of Daphnia pulex to interfere with Keratella cochlearis. To test a variety of conditions, juvenile and adult Daphnia were exposed to the cyanobacterium for different time periods prior to, and during the experiments. Adult Daphnia not only suppressed rotifers over successive two-day intervals, but also had a significant impact within a 24-hour period. However, the presence of Microcystis (5 × 105 cells ml^–1) decreased the Daphnia effect in both experiments. Although juvenile Daphnia also significantly suppressed Keratella population growth, the presence of Microcystis (10⁵ and 5 × 10⁵ cells ml^–1) caused a significant reduction in daphniid body size and decreased the ability of both nonacclimated and acclimated daphniids to suppress rotifers. Keratella inhalation and mortality are positively correlated with filtering rates and body size of Daphnia. Therefore, the feeding rates and size structure of a Daphnia population will determine its potential to interfere with vulnerable rotifers. In all experiments the presence of Microcystis significantly decreased the ability of Daphnia to interfere with this rotifer despite the fact that Keratella was also inhibited. In the field this effect might be augmented if Microcystis colonies are more easily ingested by cladocerans than by the rotifers.     

Feeding behaviour and morphology of filtering combs of Daphnia galeata

The population of Daphnia galeata Sars from the fish pond Velký Pálenec (Blatná, Czechoslovakia) living in high food conditions (7 mgC l^–1) was characterized by a small size of the filtering comb on the thoracic limb 3, measured as seta length, length of the base of the comb and number of setae (population 1). One month cultivation of this population in low food conditions (1.5 mgC l^–1) in the laboratory resulted in twofold increase in size of the filtering comb (population 2). Filtering and ingestion rates of both populations were measured at eight concentrations of food (approximately 0.025–3.2 mgC l^–1) using ¹⁴C labeled Scenedesmus acutus. The results show that size of the filtering combs influences considerably feeding behavior of Daphnia. The comparison of animals with the same body length suggests that the population with a large comb feeds at concentration of food below 0.4 mgC l^–1 more intensively and reaches the maximum of the filtering rate at a lower concentration than the population with a small comb. The situation is opposite at concentration above 0.4 mgC l^–1. The higher values of theoretical flow in population with a small projection of filtering area suggest that this population has to compensate disadvantage of a small comb with the higher appendages beat frequency.     

Growth of Daphnia longispina L. in a polyhumic lake under various availabilities of algal,bacterial and detrital food

The availability and importance of food sources for growth of Daphnia longispina L. from a highly coloured fishless lake with anoxic hypolimnion were assessed by combining in situ and laboratory experiments. In in situ experiments populations were enclosed in tubes with natural temperature stratification and with or without anoxic hypolimnion. In the laboratory experiments the importance of food source (littoral zone vs pelagic epilimnion) was assessed by enclosing moss thalli and a natural zooplankton population in a large-scale flow-through system supplying food for experimental Daphnia. Growth of juveniles of Daphnia in epilimnetic water was determined in batch culture experiments and the importance of increasing concentrations of bacteria and algae for their growth and development was investigated with a small-scale flow-through system. Access to the anoxic hypolimnion enhanced the growth of Daphnia by 23–24%. Growth rates in the tubes with anoxic hypolimnion were 0.36 and 0.16 d^–1 in July and August respectively. In tubes without anoxia the corresponding values were 0.29 and 0.13. In batch-cultures the highest growth rate determined was 0.16 and the overall rates were lower than in in situ experiments. In batch culture Daphnia was able to grow in darkness for 10 days with a rate of 0.16. In the large-scale flow-through system Daphnia population fed with littoral water reproduced well despite the low concentration of algae and increased its number by a factor of c. 32 in 10 days. However, the animals were small and net production of Daphnia population thus lower under the littoral influence than in the control treatment. Population could survive and grew slowly on pelagial water processed by a natural zooplankton community and with very little algae left. It is thus possible that bacteria serve as a life-support system enabling the population survival over periods of algal shortage. Small-scale flow-through experiments revealed that Daphnia longispina is able to mature and reproduce on a bacterial diet if the food concentration is high enough and Daphnia on bacterial food could achieve growth rates similar to those on an algal diet. The threshold food level for Daphnia longispina was estimated to be c. 18.5 g C 1^–1. Detrital material is of limited value in nutrition of Daphnia even in a lake where more than 75% of carbon is bound in particulate detritus.     

Morphology and defensive structures in the predator-prey interaction: an experimental study of Parabroteas sarsi (Copepoda,Calanoida) with different cladoceran prey

Parabroteas sarsi is a predaceous calanoid copepod commonly found in South Andes lakes. Feeding experiments were carried out in order to estimate the predation rates and attack patterns on different cladoceran prey. Predation rates were related with prey sizes. The smallest prey, Bosmina longirostris, was ingested up to 5 prey pred^–1 h^–1 while the largest, Daphnia middendorffiana, only at 0.12 prey pred^–1 h^–1. The functional response of P. sarsi differed when confronted with different prey although in all cases, the number of kills increased with prey density. A saturation of ingestion rates at high prey densities was only observed for B. longirostris and Ceriodaphnia dubia juveniles. Remains seldom appeared at the end of the experiments, implying that the predator consumed prey totally. Yet, in all experiments carried out with Daphnia ambigua and D. middendorffiana, remains, including soft parts, were found. Direct observations of attack and of number and types of remains showed interference of handling by tail, helmet, and size of the prey.     

Top-down control of natural phyto- and bacterioplankton prey communities by Daphnia magna and by the natural zooplankton community of the hypertrophic Lake Blankaart

Biomanipulation, through the reduction of fish abundance resulting in an increase of large filter feeders and a stronger top-down control on algae, is commonly used as a lake restoration tool in eutrophic lakes. However, cyanobacteria, often found in eutrophic ponds, can influence the grazing capacity of filter feeding zooplankton. We performed grazing experiments in hypertrophic Lake Blankaart during two consecutive summers (1998, with and 1999, without cyanobacteria) to elucidate the influence of cyanobacteria on the grazing pressure of zooplankton communities. We compared the grazing pressure of the natural macrozooplankton community (mainly small to medium-sized cladocerans and copepods) with that of large Daphnia magna on the natural bacterioplankton and phytoplankton prey communities. Our results showed that in the absence of cyanobacteria, Daphnia magna grazing pressure on bacteria was higher compared to the grazing pressure of the natural zooplankton community. However, Daphnia grazing rates on phytoplankton were not significantly different compared to the grazing rates of the natural zooplankton community. When cyanobacteria were abundant, grazing pressure of Daphnia magnaseemed to be inhibited, and the grazing pressure on bacteria and phytoplankton was similar to that of the natural macrozooplankton community. Our results suggest that biomanipulation may not always result in a more effective top-down control of the algal biomass.     

Density-dependent predation ofChaoborus flavicans onDaphnia longispina in a small lake: the effect of prey size

Functional response curves of fourth instar larvae ofChaoborus flavicans preying on two size classes ofDaphnia longispina were examined throughout three summer seasons in a small forest lake. Data for each size class were fitted to Holling's disc equation. The parametersa (attack rate) andTh (handling time) were calculated for each prey size from these curves. Attack rate was greater and handling time was shorter for small (0.77 mm) than for large (1.82 mm)Daphnia. In 1:1 mixture of these prey size classes the predation rates ofChaoborus on smallDaphnia at prey densities above 20 l^–1 were greater than predicted from the single size-class experiments. The observed predation rates on largeDaphnia were lower than predicted at all prey densities. Since both single size-class and two size-class experiments were run during the same period of time the difference in observed and predicted predation rates could not be attributed to seasonal changes in prey preference ofChaoborus larvae. In experiments with a concentrated mixture of lake zooplankton (dominated byD. longispina)Chaoborus preference forDaphnia decreased as prey body size increased. There was no obvious correlation between selectivity coefficients and size-frequency distributions ofDaphnia. When medium-sizedDaphnia were omitted from calculations the preference of small over large prey did not differ significantly from the predictions of the single size-class model.     

Effect of the epizoic rotifer Brachionus rubens on the population growth of three cladoceran species

Using population densities and growth rates as criteria, we studied interactions between the epizoic rotifer Brachionus rubens and each of three cladoceran species differing in size and reproductive rates — Daphnia carinata, Moina macrocopa and Ceriodaphnia rigaudi. In all mixed — species experiments, B. rubens existed in both the epizoic mode, attached to the cladoceran host, and in the free-swimming mode. Rotifer population growth rates were significantly depressed in the presence of M. macrocopa, presumably as a consequence of exploitative and interference competition. The largest cladoceran, D. carinata probably did not suppress B. rubens, because the epizoic component of the rotifer population escaped from the deleterious effects of mechanical interference. Peak population numbers and initial population growth rates reached by all three cladocerans were lower in the presence of B. rubens, probably because of the adverse effects of the epizoic infestation, which was maximal on D. carinata and least on C. rigaudi. In mixed-species cultures of D. carinata and M. macrocopa, the presence of B. rubens helped D. carinata coexist with M. macrocopa, which otherwise would have suppressed the Daphnia.     

Discrimination by freshwater zooplankton between single algal cells differing in nutritional status

Summary Grazing rates of a freshwater copepod (Diaptomus kenai) and a freshwater cladoceran (Daphnia rosea) on the green alga Selenastrum minutum were determined to be dependent on the nutritional status of individual cells. Cells that were less nitrogen limited were ingested at a greater rate than cells reared under more nitrogen limited conditions. Diaptomus displayed active discrimination, possibly via chemodetection, while Daphnia expressed passive selection, probably via differential retention on filters. These results suggest that the impact of grazing zooplankton varies with the physiological state of components of the phytoplankton community.     

Effects of food limitation and temperature on cladocerans from a tropical Brazilian lake

Food limitation was tested in the laboratory by individual growth and reproduction of two cladoceran species, Ceriodaphnia richardi and Daphnia gessneri, from the shallow tropical Brazilian Lake Monte Alegre. The cladocerans were fed cultivated green alga Scenedesmus spinosus in concentrations of 0.20, 0.10, 0.05, and 0.025 mg C l⁻¹. Higher biomass and growth rates occurred in the two highest-food concentrations; the two lowest ones negatively affected clutch size and first reproduction. The threshold food concentration is lower than 0.025 mg C l⁻¹ and the incipient limiting level is a value between 0.10 and 0.20 mg C l⁻¹. The largest species, D. gessneri, was more sensitive to low food concentrations. The effects of low and high temperatures (19 and 27°C) were evaluated by life table experiments with three cladocerans from the lake—Daphnia ambigua, D. gessneri, and Moina micrura—with no food limitation (1 mg C l⁻¹ of S. spinosus). Higher population growth rates for the three species were found at 27°C; better performance in most life table parameters was observed for the former two species at the highest temperature, D. gessneri being the most sensitive to the lowest temperature. There are indications that temperature is an important abiotic factor that constrains populations of cladocerans for a short period in winter in the lake, when temperature decreases to 18–19°C. However, its influence cannot be separated from a biotic factor such as food, whose effect is stronger in the cool season, when concentrations are lower and contribution of inedible algae is relatively higher.     

Recycling of food byDaphnia magna Straus (Cladocera): A possible role in swarming

Daphnia magna is a filter feeder able to recycle part of its food. The fraction of the ingestion that consists of recycled food increases with the filtering impact, without leading to a decrease in growth efficiency. Swarming creates locally a high filtering impact and recycling of food might be one of its benefits.     

In situ versus laboratory estimations of length–weight regression and growth rate of Daphnia magna (Branchiopoda, Anomopoda) from an aerated waste stabilization pond

The present paper questions the adequacy of using length–weight regressions and growth rates calculated in the laboratory under constant physico-chemical and food conditions for the estimation of biomass and secondary production of animals living in a variable environment from the physico-chemistry and food availability point of view. Length–weight regressions (LWR) and growth rate of Daphnia magna were determined in situat five key periods of the year. In parallel, LWR and growth rate were determined in laboratory incubators at temperature adjusted to the mean temperature measured during the in situexperiments. LWR estimated from pond daphnids collected during the in situ experiments were, on the whole, not significantly different from LWR established during laboratory experiments, indicating that the food availability was globally similar in the laboratory and in situexperiments, even though food items were substantially different between the experiments. In situ algal biomass was indeed low compared to the algal biomass in laboratory experiments, but high biomasses of bacteria, protozoa and detritus were available for daphnid feeding in the tubes incubated in situ. Growth rate of D. magnawas monitored in situusing 50-ml tubes closed with Nylon net (mesh size = 80 m) and in the laboratory using 50-ml glass flasks. The physico-chemical, bacteriological and algological variables were checked to be similar in the tubes and in the pond. Growth rates varied according to the size of the animal and according to the water temperature. The maximum growth rates were observed for juveniles at 20.2 °C. Growth rates were also determined in the laboratory at temperature corresponding to the mean temperature recorded in the pond during the in situ growth experiments. Differences between in situ and laboratory body length–growth rate regressions (LgR) were observed for the experiments conducted at 15.6 °C and 23.6 °C. Due to differences in LWR and LgR between in situ and laboratory experiments, biomass and daily production estimated from laboratory cultures were found to be significantly, but not severely, higher than biomass and daily production estimated on the basis of in situ experiments. It has been, therefore, concluded that, when the constraints linked to the realization of in situ growth experiments are too strong, the laboratory approach is fully justified.     

Demographic costs of Chaoborus-induced phenotypic plasticity in Daphnia pulex

Summary It has been proposed that morphological defenses against predation have demographic costs. We measured the cost of a predator-induced morphological defense, using predaceous phantom midge larvae Chaoborus americanus (Insecta, Diptera) and the prey species Daphnia pulex (Crustacea, Cladocera). The induced defense is a neck tooth (and other pleiotropic structures) developed in juvenile D. pulex in the presence of C. americanus. Laboratory life table experiments, in the absence of predation, indicated the population growth rate of typical D. pulex was 11% to 39% greater than that of D. pulex exposed to C. americanus extract, or C. americanus-conditioned water. The reduction in population growth rate was most frequently associated with an increase in the time between birth and first reproduction. Induced individuals required twenty more hours at 23°C, and twenty five more hours at 20°C, to develop to the age of first reproduction. Under limiting food conditions age-specific survivorship and the number of offspring produced per female by the induced form were reduced relative to the typical form. As a result, the difference in population growth rates among forms was greater at the low food level as indicated by a highly significant food by form interaction effect. In addition to neck teeth and lowered reproductive rates, the offspring of induced form individuals had significantly longer tail-spines (7.2–7.5%), and primiparous adults from the induction treatment were significantly shorter than controls (3–8%).     

Grazer-induced changes in the desmid Staurastrum

In aquatic environments, predator kairomones have been shown to affect morphology of prey species. Past work on the interaction between zooplankton and phytoplankton was based mainly on the Daphnia–Scenedesmus model. Algae of the genus Staurastrum can produce mucilage, causing cell clumping and settling out of the water column. These clumps are too large to be eaten by daphniids. Thus, we hypothesised that this may be a grazer defence. We investigated whether Daphnia magna induces the formation of mucus globules in Staurastrum, how this occurs, and if the formation of clumps inhibits growth in juvenile Daphnia. Eight strains of Staurastrum were used to check whether mucus extrusion is induced by the presence of Daphniaor possibly by a chemical excreted by Daphnia magna. None of the strains reacted to the presence of Daphnia water alone, animals had to be present to induce clumping. Mechanical action (gentle stirring) caused the same strains to clump. The ecological relevance of clumping was then investigated. The different Staurastrum strains were used as food in a growth experiment with ecologically relevant densities of neonates of Daphnia hyalina. These small daphniids did not cause the same clumping observed for Daphnia magna when present in experiments at high densities. We observed that juvenile daphniids grew less well on strains with larger cell size.     

Type-3 functional response in limnetic suspension-feeders,as demonstrated by in situ grazing rates

Field-measured grazing rates (ml/animal/d) of cladocerans (mostly daphniids) and diaptomids were assembled from various published studies and plotted as a function of corresponding phytoplankton concentration (μg l⁻¹ f.w.). Filtering rates of both zooplankton groups initially increased with seston concentration until maximal grazing rates were observed at approximately 4 × 10² and 1 × 10² μg l⁻¹ for cladocerans and copepods, respectively; at higher algal concentrations, filtering rates of both declined as a function of food concentration. The shape of these curves are most consistent with Holling's (1966) Type 3 functional response. We found little support for the Type 3 functional response in published laboratory studies of Daphnia; most investigators report either a Type 1 or Type 2 response. The one study in which the Type 3 response was observed involved experiments where animals were acclimated at low food concentrations for 24 h, whereas those studies associated with response Types 1 or 2 had acclimation periods of only 1 to 3 h. We therefore assembled relevant data from the literature to examine the effect of acclimation period on the feeding rates of Daphnia at low food concentrations. In the absence of any acclimation, animals filtered at extremely low rates. After 2 h of acclimation, however, filtering rates increased 4 to 5-fold but declined again with longer durations; after > 70 h of pre-conditioning, filtering rates were almost as low as they had been with no acclimation. We also found little support for the Type 3 functional response in published studies of copepods. The only study associated with a Type 3 response involved a marine copepod that had been subjected to a starvation period of 48 h; however, an analysis of the effects of acclimation period did not yield conclusive evidence that filtering rates of freshwater copepods (Diaptomus and Eudiaptomus) decrease significantly with acclimation duration. The low filtering rates associated with long acclimation periods in laboratory experiments appears to be a direct result of animals becoming emaciated from prolonged exposure to low food concentrations, a situation which renders them incapable of high filtering rates. This may explain the Type 3 functional response for field cladocerans, since zooplankton in food-limiting situations are constantly exposed to low food concentrations, and would therefore have low body carbon and consequently less energy to filter-feed. We cannot, however, use this to explain the Type 3 response for field diaptomids, since copepods in the laboratory did not appear to lose body carbon even after 72 h of feeding at very low food levels, and there was inconclusive evidence that either Diaptomus or Eudiaptomus decrease their filtering rates with acclimation period. Although Incipient Limiting Concentrations (ILC) for Daphnia ranged from 1 to 8.5 × 10³ μg 1⁻¹, more than half of these fell between 1 and 3 × 10³ μg l⁻¹, bracketing the value of 2.7 × 10² μg l⁻¹ for field cladocerans. There was, however, a great deal of variation in reported maximum ingestion rates (MIR), maximum filtering rates (MFR) and ILC values for Daphnia magna. ILC values from the few laboratory studies of freshwater copepods ranged between 0.5 to 2.8 × 10³ μg 1⁻¹, and was higher than the ILC value of approximately 0.2 × 10³ μg l⁻¹ calculated for field populations of D. minutus. Generally, there was considerable agreement among laboratory studies regarding the shape of grazing-rate and ingestion-rate curves when data were converted to similar units and presented on standardized scales.     

Prey selectivity of Piona exigua,a planktonic water mite

Summary Females, males and nymphs of Piona exigua were observed during prey capture and ingestion. The encounter radius of the mite was very small, allowing the escape of some crustaceans, such as the calanoid copepod Boeckella. Cladocerans, such as Bosmina or Chydorus, with little or no pre-contact escape response were the most vulnerable to mite predation. Preference values in size-selection experiments varied widely between individual mites. Adult mites presented with two sizes of Daphnia carinata generally preferred the smaller prey. When four sizes were presented simultaneously, however, the preferences of female mites for each size were not significantly different. Patterns of prey selection varied with predator age and sex; for example, female mites preferred Daphnia to Simocephalus, Ceriodaphnia and Chydorus, while nymphs showed a strong preference for Chydorus over Ceriodaphnia. When two prey types were present in equal proportions, differences in total prey density (range 5 or 10/1 – 30 or 50/1) did not alter preferences between the prey species. The preference of female mites for a particular prey type generally increased with increasing relative abundance of the prey type in each of three experiments (Daphnia: Ceriodaphnia, Ceriodaphnia: Chydorus, and Daphnia: Simocephalus). These results imply switching behaviour in these mites. Our results indicate the value of direct observation of predatory behaviour as an adjunct to prey selection experiments. It is also apparent that predatory behaviour in the presence of more than one prey type may not be predictable from that observed in single-prey situations. Predation rates on particular prey species were sometimes reduced in the presence of another species. The relative proportions of prey eaten when two species were present could not be predicted from the number of each species eaten when they were presented separately.     

The efficacy of Scenedesmus morphology as a defense mechanism against grazing by selected species of rotifers and cladocerans

Phytoplankton often develop various defense mechanisms in response to zooplankton grazing, such as spines and colonies. While it is now known that increased spine length and cells in a colony of members of the genus Scenedesmus, when zooplankton grazing is intense, helps in reducing zooplankton filtering rates, the effect of these defense mechanisms at the population level has been observed in few studies. Here we present data on the growth rates of four zooplankton species, Brachionus calyciflorus, B. patulus, Ceriodaphnia dubia and Daphnia pulex at two food levels using two species of colony-forming Scenedesmus spp.: S. acutus (cell length = 18.2 ± 0.4 µm; width = 4.2 ± 0.1 µm; average colony length = 90 µm; width: 21 µm) and S. quadricauda (cell length: 21 ± 0.5 width 7.5 ± 0.3 µm; average colony length: 84 µm; width: 30 µm). Whereas S. acutus had no spines, S. quadricauda had spines of 6–10 µm. Population growth experiments of the test rotifers and cladocerans were conducted in 100 ml containers with 50 ml of the medium with test algae. Algae concentrations used were: 13 and 52 mg dw l^–1 of each of the two algal species offered in colonial forms. We used an initial inoculation zooplankter density of 1 ind. ml^–1 for either of the rotifer species and 0.2 ind. ml^–1 for either of the cladoceran species. In all, we had 64 test containers (4 test species of zooplankton × 2 test species of algae × 2 algal densities × 4 replicates). We found a significant effect of algal size on the growth rates of all the four tested species of zooplankton. The population growth rates of zooplankton ranged from –0.58 to 0.66 and were significantly higher on diet of S. acutus than of S. quadricauda. Thus, our study confirms that the larger colony size and the formation of spines in S. quadricauda were effective defenses against grazing by both rotifers and smaller sized cladoceran Ceriodaphnia dubia but that larger-bodied Daphnia pulex could exploit both the algal populations equally.     

A comparison of populations from the Daphnia similis group (Cladocera: Daphniidae)

European populations of Daphnia similis Claus have been compared with populations from tropical Asia. Daphnia similoides n. sp. from tropical Asia was described as the sibling species of D. similis. The female has characteristic neonate, postabdomen, head, and ephippium. The male has characteristic rostrum, antennules, and the distalmost part of the postabdomen. The D. similis group was compared with D. carinata s. str. Australian populations.     

Effects of satiation on feeding and swimming behaviour of planktivores

Hunger affects the feeding and swimming behaviour in fish. After 36 h of food deprivation, the feeding and swimming behaviour of Pseudorasbora parva (Cyprinidae) was studied under different prey densities (0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10 and 25 of Daphnia pulex per liter). The initial feeding rates showed marked variations in relation to prey availability. Under high prey densities, the initial feeding rate of fish was higher and subsequently decreased faster, when compared to those feeding under low prey densities. At higher prey densities, two factors were involved: that of higher prey encounter rates and also the attainment of food satiation at a faster rate. Across all prey densities, the feeding rates of fish reached a plateau after satiation. The swimming speed of fish was found to be negatively related to the prey density and a significant change in swimming speed was noted as being directly related to the level of satiation. It was found that the increasing satiation level greatly influenced the handling time and reactive volume of predator, which finally caused reduced feeding rates.     

Influence of food density on respiration rate of two crustacean plankters,Daphnia galeata and Bosmina longirostris

Summary The influence of food density on respiration rate was measured for two cladoceran plankton species, Daphnia galeata and Bosmina longirostris, over the range 0 to 2.5 mg C 1^-1, using the modified Winkler technique in order to examine how this affects the respiration rate and whether the functional response is the same in the two species. The respiration rate for animals of equivalent body size did not differ significantly between the two species in the absence of food, but was significantly lower in Bosmina longirostris than Daphnia galeata at high food density. Within a species, the response of respiration rate to changing food density did not differ among individuals of different body size. The respiration rate of D. galeata increased with increasing food density and reached a plateau at a high food density. A similar response curve was also found with the respiration rate of B. longirostris, although the response was less conspicuous. This response curve cannot be explained by the energy cost of known feeding behavior in cladocerans. Since the respiration rate related linearly with the assimilation rate, increase in food density seemed to increase the respiration rate by increasing the energetic cost required to process food biochemically, known as specific dynamic action.     

Grazing resistance in nutrient-stressed phytoplankton

Grazing experiments were performed with the zooplankters Daphnia pulex and Daphnia magna, feeding on phosphorus-saturated and phosphorus-limited cells of two green algae (Scenedesmus subspicatus and Selenastrum capricornutum). P-limited algal cells passed largely intact through the gut and were thus spared from heavy grazing pressure. P-saturated algal cells, in contrast, were efficiently assimilated. Structural and morphological changes in the P-limited cells most probably reduced their digestibility. This phenomenon may be an important factor in zooplankton production and competition, and may serve as an example of a highly efficient strategy of P-limited algae to resist heavy grazing pressure.