Olfactory learning and memory in Grapholita molesta

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of previous exposure to the essential oil of lemongrass [Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf (Poaceae)] on the chemotactic behavior of Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) larvae and adults. All insect responses were evaluated using a Y‐tube (dual choice) olfactometer. Experience with the essential oil for 48 h after hatching did not change the chemotactic behavior of larvae; however, when they were exposed to lemongrass for 10–12 consecutive days, they did not present a preference for either treatment. Adults originating from larvae exposed to the essential oil odor until the formation of pupae responded more to this treatment in comparison to acetone. Similar results were obtained with insects exposed for only 24 h (at the end of the last instar) to the same treatment. Similar to inexperienced individuals, adults exposed for 48 h after emergence to acetone were significantly more responsive to this compound than to the essential oil. However, insects exposed to lemongrass odor during the same period displayed no preference for either treatment. This study demonstrated that both larvae and adults of G. molesta are capable of non‐associative learning and the memory acquired in the larval stage is maintained for at least 48 h after emergence.     

Factors influencing adult male Grapholita molesta dispersal in commercial Malus and Prunus host crops

The oriental fruit moth (OFM), Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), has been an economic pest of apples (Malus spp.) and peaches (Prunus spp.; both Rosaceae) in the eastern USA since the 1930s. Successful management of G. molesta with insecticides requires careful timing of these products based on sex‐pheromone trap captures of male moths. In Pennsylvania, apple and peach orchards are often planted adjacently. Factors such as trap distance from release points, host crop, and wind were considered in relation to male moth movement within and between hosts. Our practical objective was to understand male G. molesta dispersal within and between these two hosts to achieve better management. Recapture of moths decreased over distance; the majority of moths were recaptured 50–100 m from the release point regardless of crop type. Male G. molesta released into commercial apple and peach orchards were most likely to remain in the crop of release and to not exhibit host shifts over the season, even after peach fruit were harvested. Our analyses of wind direction data with respect to recapture showed that the likelihood of recapture was similar regardless of the orientation of the traps relative to the mean wind direction at peak flight times. The apple and peach host crops appeared to affect male G. molesta dispersal to the extent that wind in orchards affects their perception of pheromone. Crop effects were most likely due to the traps closest to the release points being in the same crop as the release points.     

Synergism of pheromone and host‐plant volatile blends in the attraction of Grapholita molesta males

Control of Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), a major pest of stone and pome fruits, is successfully achieved by mating disruption. Under these conditions, tools other than conventional pheromone dispensers are needed for flight monitoring. The objective of the present work was to determine whether plant volatiles synergize male G. molesta attraction to a suboptimal dose of synthetic sex pheromone. The plant blend (referred to as 5VB), a mixture of three green leaf volatiles [(Z)‐3‐hexenyl acetate, (Z)‐3‐hexenol, and (E)‐2‐hexenal] and two aromatics [benzaldehyde (BZA) and benzonitrile (BZN)], was added to the suboptimal pheromone dose (2 ng on filter paper) in log steps (up to 10 000× the pheromone dose) to test synergism of pheromone and plant blends. In addition, the effect of individual plant volatiles on male responses was investigated by adding to the suboptimal pheromone dose each of the four‐compound plant‐volatile blends, resulting from eliminating one volatile from the 5VB at a time, or each plant volatile alone. Flight behaviour and the time to reach the source were recorded. The 5VB alone was not attractive to G. molesta males, but at a ratio of 1:1 000 (Ph:5VB) or higher, the attractiveness of the suboptimal pheromone dose increased, to a level similar to that of the optimal pheromone dose (10 ng). All tested plant volatiles, except BZA, synergized the response to the pheromone when added individually, but only (Z)‐3‐hexenol and BZN did so to a level not significantly different from the Ph:5VB blend. Aromatics had a stronger effect than green leaf volatiles (GLVs), because their removal, but not the removal of GLVs, decreased landing responses. The addition of the 5VB decreased significantly the time males needed to reach the odour source. The observed enhanced male attraction to mixtures of pheromone and plant volatiles will facilitate the development of lures for G. molesta adult flight monitoring.     

Geostatistical characterization of the spatial distribution of Grapholita molesta and Anarsia lineatella males in an agricultural landscape

Abstract:  The results obtained in spatial analysis of pheromone trap catches of oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) and Peach twig borer, Anarsia lineatella (Zeller), are reported. The studies were performed in the Molise region, central Italy, during 2002 and 2003. Local distributions of oriental fruit moth and peach twig borer males were considered in a heterogeneous landscape. The aim of the study was to determine the temporal and spatial variation in distribution and abundance of the insect pests inside small plots of fruit orchards (apple, kiwi, peach, pear and plum fruits) and outside (in field crops, irrigation channels, hedgerows and a river), and to evaluate the importance of the host plants in relation to the adult distributions. Results showed that the main 'hot spot' for both lepidopterous pests was in a stone fruit orchard in the northern zone of the study area; other infested areas were in stone orchards and, in the case of A. lineatella , also in plum orchards. The river seems to act as a barrier rather than an ecological corridor. The observed spatio-temporal distributions of G. molesta and A. lineatella differed and were determined mainly by the location of the most important host plants and by the tendency of males to move in the environment, i.e. inside and outside the breeding and mating sites. Adequate knowledge of these spatial processes should be considered as an essential prerequisite for integrated pest management programmes in a precision farming approach.     

Distribution of the oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta Busck (Lep., Tortricidae) infestation on newly planted peaches before and during 2 years of mating disruption

Abstract:  Oriental fruit moth (OFM) Grapholita molesta Busck (Lep., Tortricidae) is one of the most important pests of commercial stone fruit orchards in the Goulburn-Murray Valley region of Victoria, Australia. OFM populations have been successfully controlled by the use of the mating disruption (MD) technique for many years, but damage to shoot tips and fruit has now started to increase. The most severe damage under MD is found at the edge of peach blocks, adjacent to the pear blocks under insecticide treatment. In 1997–98, OFM infestation levels were examined in a newly planted peach block surrounded by older peaches, pears, apples and pasture. The infestation distribution was followed up for four consecutive years. No treatments were used against OFM for the first 2 years in the newly planted peaches, but in years 3 and 4 the whole block was treated with MD. At the end of year 2, shoot tip damage was randomly distributed throughout the newly planted peach block with no 'edge effect'. After MD was applied in year 3, the damage was confined to the edges of the block adjacent to insecticide-sprayed apples and pears. No 'edge effect' was detected along the border with an older peach block treated with MD or on the border with pasture. Extending the MD treated area for 25–30 m into the neighbouring apples and pears in year 4 reduced the 'edge effect'.     

Dual pheromone dispenser for combined control of codling moth Cydia pomonella L. and oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lep., Tortricidae) in pears

Codling moth (CM) and oriental fruit moth (OFM) are very important orchard pests worldwide, and particularly in Victoria, Australia, where both species damage pome fruit. Individually CM and OFM have been controlled successfully by pheromone‐mediated mating disruption, but treatment of pome fruit with full registered rates of two individual hand‐applied dispensers for CM and OFM could be uneconomical for growers. Field trials conducted over three seasons in plots sprayed with insecticides consistently demonstrated that dual Isomate C/OFM TT dispensers, designed to disrupt both CM and OFM, were as effective as Isomate CTT and Isomate OFM Rosso dispensers applied individually in pears for control of CM and OFM respectively. The dual‐ and individual‐species dispensers reduced moth catches and fruit damage to a similar degree. The results suggest that combined control of CM and OFM in pears by applying dual Isomate C/OFM TT dispensers at the full‐recommended rate of 500 dispensers per hectare will be more economical than use of individual species dispensers, because the price and application cost of dual dispenser is about half that for individual dispensers.     

Comparative analysis of peach and pear fruit volatiles attractive to the oriental fruit moth,Cydia molesta

Cydia molesta is an important pest of peach and pear fruits late in growing season. We identified and quantified volatiles from immature and mature fruits of peach and pear using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Antennally, active compounds were identified by gas chromatography-electroantennogram detection and were further tested in the field. Consistent electroantennographic activity was obtained for nine compounds from headspace collections of the mature fruits of two peach and two pear varieties. Esters were the major components, but qualitative and quantitative differences were found among four odor profiles. Blends mimicking pear fruit volatiles were more attractive to both sexes than blends mimicking peach fruit volatiles in both orchards. Our finding indicated that mixtures mimicking peach and pear fruit volatiles attracted both females and males of C. molesta, and these host volatiles may also be involved in the host switch behavior from peach to pear in mid-late season.     

Mating disruption barriers in pome fruit for improved control of oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta Busck (Lep., Tortricidae) in stone fruit under mating disruption

Oriental fruit moth (OFM) Grapholita molesta Busck (Lep., Tortricidae) is a very important pest in commercial orchards in Victoria, Australia. Pheromone‐mediated mating disruption (MD) applied in stone fruit orchards successfully controlled OFM populations for many years, but damage to shoot tips and fruit at the edge of peach blocks located adjacent to pear blocks under insecticide treatments has become problematic. To improve protection of stone fruit against edge damage and outbreaks of OFM, all orchards were treated with sex pheromone dispensers for MD on an area‐wide basis. Area‐wide MD treatment, including all pome and stone fruit orchards in a discrete area, successfully controlled edge infestations of OFM, but was expensive. To reduce the cost of OFM control, sex pheromone dispensers for MD were applied as barrier treatments to 54–60 m of neighbouring pears adjacent to peaches under MD. Detailed monitoring of the OFM population, shoot tip and fruit damage assessments indicated that application of MD barriers on pears during two consecutive seasons provided sufficient control of OFM on peaches. This MD barrier treatment was able to reduce the number of OFM caught in all experimental peach blocks, with damage to shoot tips and fruit giving similar results to MD treatment of the whole neighbouring pear block. Extending the MD treatment area for 54–60 m into the neighbouring pear block significantly reduced the edge damage in MD‐treated peaches in the first season and almost eliminated OFM damage in the second season.     

Trapping of European buprestid beetles in oak forests using visual and olfactory cues

Trapping approaches developed for the emerald ash borer (EAB), Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), were adapted for trapping several European oak buprestid species. These approaches included the use of natural leaf surfaces as well as green and purple plastic in sticky trap designs. Plastic surfaces were incorporated into novel ‘branch‐trap’ designs that each presented two 5 × 9‐cm² rectangular surfaces on a cardboard structure wrapped around the leaves of a branch. We used visual adult Agrilus decoys in an attempt to evoke male mating approaches toward the traps. Our first experiment compared the attractiveness of visual characteristics of the surfaces of branch‐traps. The second looked at the effect on trap captures of adding semiochemical lures, including manuka oil, (Z)‐3‐hexen‐1‐ol, and (Z)‐9‐tricosene. In total, 1 962 buprestid specimens including 14 species from the genus Agrilus were caught on 178 traps in a 22‐day time‐span. Overall, the green plastic‐covered branch‐traps significantly out‐performed the other trap designs. We further found that the presence of an EAB visual decoy placed on the trap surface often increased captures on these green traps, but this effect was stronger for certain Agrilus species than for others. The visual decoy was particularly important for the most serious pest detected, Agrilus biguttatus Fabricius, which was captured 13 times on traps with decoys, but only once without a decoy. There were some small but significant effects of odor treatment on the capture of buprestids of two common species, Agrilus angustulus Illiger and Agrilus sulcicollis Lacordaire. There were also 141 Elateridae specimens on these traps, which were not influenced by trap type or decoys. The results suggest that small branch‐traps of this nature can provide a useful new tool for monitoring of buprestids, which have the potential to be further optimized with respect to visual and olfactory cues.     

Reduction of the response to sex pheromone in the oriental fruit moth,Grapholita molesta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) following successive pheromonal exposures

The effects of prior pheromonal experience upon the pheromone- mediated upwind flight response was examined in the oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta(Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Adult male G. molestawere subjected to a parallel series of staggered and repeated pheromonal exposures in a sustained-flight wind tunnel. Levels of response to pheromone in male G. molestasignificantly decreased in a (a) rectilinear function with increased ages of individuals, (b) logarithmic function of successive trials, and (c) steeper logarithmic function of successive trials with increased dosage of sex pheromone. The baseline levels of responding were not affected by either the (a) dosage of sex pheromone, (b) posteclosion ages of individuals for their initial exposures once the main effect of age itself was estimated, (c) elapsed time in hours between trials, or (d) discrete days of testing as integral intervals, disregarding hours within days.     

Importance of trap liner adhesive selection for male moth catch (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) with bisexual attractants

Studies compared moth captures of three pests (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) of apple, Malus domestica Borkhausen, in delta traps using removable liners coated with either a sticky gel (SG) or a hot‐melt pressure sensitive (HMPS) adhesive. Laboratory and field studies with Cydia pomonella (L.), Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris) and Grapholita molesta (Busck) demonstrated that traps with either liner, baited with a pair of virgin females catch males, but at significantly different levels. In the field, male moth captures in traps with the HMPS liner were significantly greater than in traps with the SG liner for C. rosaceana, and G. molesta; but not for C. pomonella. Similar results were observed in laboratory studies using flight tunnels. Additional studies demonstrated that this difference in moth captures between liners was not due to levels of female mortality, but instead was correlated with the occurrence of the female's ventral abdominal surface becoming stuck in the adhesive. Studies showed that a significantly greater proportion of females of all species had their ventral abdomen stuck in the SG than HPMS adhesive on day 1, but only G. molesta and C. rosaceana on day 3. In addition, the tackiness of the two adhesives affected moth movement on the liner with males and females of all species moving farther on liners with SG than HMPS adhesive. A greater proportion of female G. molesta and C. pomonella were either stuck supined or laterally on the SG than HMPS adhesive, and females in this position captured as many males as when prone and unstuck on the liner. Our studies demonstrate that adhesives can secondarily influence male moth captures on trap liners when used with bisexual attractants, and that adhesive type should be considered when developing action thresholds.     

Adult female and neonate larval plant preferences of the generalist herbivore, Epiphyas postvittana

The polyphagous leafroller moth, Epiphyas postvittana, is a pest of many fruit crops in New Zealand. Since the larva is highly mobile, host selection in this insect may involve both the adult female and the larva. In order to test the relative importance of the adult female and the neonate larva in the selection of host plants, the ovipositional preferences of females, and the preferences or acceptances of neonate larvae towards 26 plant species, consisting of 15 plants considered hosts and 11 not considered hosts, were investigated. In the ovipositional tests, the mean preferences of females for hosts and non-hosts were very similar. In contrast, larvae showed a significantly greater mean preference or acceptance towards hosts than to non-hosts, in both choice and no-choice bioassays, respectively. There were highly significant correlations between the preferences and acceptances of larvae for plants in the choice and no-choice tests. In the no-choice tests, there was a highly significant correlation between the acceptances of neonate larvae towards plants after one and three days (i.e., acceptances changed little over time). Moreover, in these no-choice tests, there was a significant negative correlation between larval acceptance at 1 day and larval mortality after 3 days; that is, the less acceptable a given plant at 1 day, the more likely larvae would fail to establish, feed, and survive on it by three days. Female and larval preferences towards the various plants were also negatively correlated. Together, these data suggest that the selection of a plant for the neonate larva to feed on is largely governed by the preferences of the larva, rather than by the preferences of the female. However, selection of a plant for oviposition by the female, may be important in host selection for reasons unrelated to larval preferences, for example, by encouraging dispersal, perhaps to other plant species, of the neonate larvae and thereby decreasing intersibling competition.     

Insect pests of Norway spruce cones: incidences and altitude preferences with emphasis on Cydia strobilella (L.)

Pest species infesting spruce cones were identified from 109 locations approved for the collection of seed material in the Czech Republic. Four (occasionally five) cones were studied from each location, and 448 cones were examined in total. Each cone was assessed for external damage and was then cut open along the spine. The predominant pest species, Cydia strobilella, was detected in 65% of the cones, while the next most common species, Dioryctria abietella, was detected in 13% of the cones. Ernobius abietis, Eupithecia sp., and Thekopsora areolata were less numerous. Kaltenbachiola strobi and Megastigmus sp. were recorded sporadically. Most cones (68%) were infested with only one species. The maximum number of C. strobilella larvae detected in one cone was 13. Cone damage resulting from C. strobilella declined markedly with increasing elevation. Thus, cone infestation by C. strobilella was greater in those forest vegetation zones located in lowlands and uplands rather than in highlands and at lower mountain elevations. The number of cones without damage tended to increase with elevation, but infestation by D. abietella was unrelated to elevation. In some cases, C. strobilella damage to cones was severe. External markings on the cone (resin and deformation) cannot by themselves serve as reliable criteria for predicting C. strobilella infestation, although cones with such signs should be preferentially assessed when seed material is inspected.     

Thaumatotibia leucotreta and the Navel orange: ovipositional preferences and host susceptibility

False codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), presents a significant threat to the South African citrus industry. To limit income loss due to direct larval damage or from fruit rejection due to the phytosanitary status of this pest, additional pre‐harvest control techniques are required for Navel oranges, which are known to be susceptible to T. leucotreta damage. A number of Navel orange cultivars have been developed, and differences in female T. leucotreta ovipositional preference and susceptibility of cultivars to larval penetration are known to exist. Navel orange cultivars were grouped according to time of maturity (early, mid‐ and late season). Female T. leucotreta were subjected to choice and no‐choice tests with these cultivars, measured by oviposition. Host susceptibility was tested by allowing neonate T. leucotreta larvae to penetrate the different Navel cultivars. In the early maturing group, Fischer Navels were least preferred for oviposition and the least susceptible to larval penetration. The mid‐ and late season maturing groupings showed limited differences in oviposition preference, although host susceptibility did appear to be an important factor in assessing the vulnerability of fruit to T. leucotreta. Despite being widely planted in South Africa, the mid‐season Palmer Navels were highly susceptible to larval penetration, while for the late season cultivars, Cambria and Glen Ora Late were the least susceptible to T. leucotreta. As a result of these laboratory trials, it is recommended that farmers increase cultivation of Fischer Navels as the principal early season cultivar, avoid Palmer Navels in favour of other mid‐season maturing cultivars and give preference to the late maturing Cambria and Glen Ora Late cultivars, to limit T. leucotreta damage.     

Oviposition in Yponomeuta cagnagellus: the importance of contact cues for host plant acceptance

Small ermine moths (Yponomeutidae: Lepidoptera) are specialist herbivores. Species within the genus Yponomeuta are each specialized on a limited number of plant species, mainly within genera belonging to the Celastraceae. European Yponomeuta species have developed new specialized host affiliations, mainly on rosaceous hosts. Since these host shifts are reputed to be of consequence for speciation, the role of the ovipositing female is of particular interest. Study of the pre-oviposition behaviour of gravid Y. cagnagellus (Hb.) moths on host (Euonymus europaeus), non-host (Crateagus monogyna) and artificial oviposition substrates, provided information on the nature of the cues used for host plant acceptance and the insect’s perception of these cues. Host selection by adult females occurs with contact chemoreceptors probably located on the antennae or tarsi. MeOH-soluble, non-volatile phytochemical compounds washed from the host plant’s surface and applied on an artificial twig are sufficient to stimulate a complete sequence of behavioural elements leading to oviposition. Volatiles do not have a large effect on the pre-oviposition behaviour.     

A kinetic model of sugar metabolism in peach fruit reveals a functional hypothesis of a markedly low fructose‐to‐glucose ratio phenotype

The concentrations of sugars in fruit vary with fruit development, environment and genotype. In general, there were weak correlations between the variations in sugar concentrations and the activities of enzymes directly related with the synthesis or degradation of sugars. This finding suggests that the relationships between enzyme activities and metabolites are often non‐linear and are difficult to assess. To simulate the concentrations of sucrose, glucose, fructose and sorbitol during the development of peach fruit, a kinetic model of sugar metabolism was developed by taking advantage of recent profiling data. Cell compartmentation (cytosol and vacuole) was described explicitly, and data‐driven enzyme activities were used to parameterize equations. The model correctly accounts for both annual and genotypic variations, which were observed in 10 genotypes derived from an interspecific cross. They provided important information on the mechanisms underlying the specification of phenotypic differences. In particular, the model supports the hypothesis that a difference in fructokinase affinity could be responsible for a low fructose‐to‐glucose ratio phenotype, which was observed in the studied population.     

PpeTAC1 promotes the horizontal growth of branches in peach trees and is a member of a functionally conserved gene family found in diverse plants species

Trees are capable of tremendous architectural plasticity, allowing them to maximize their light exposure under highly competitive environments. One key component of tree architecture is the branch angle, yet little is known about the molecular basis for the spatial patterning of branches in trees. Here, we report the identification of a candidate gene for the br mutation in Prunus persica (peach) associated with vertically oriented growth of branches, referred to as ‘pillar’ or ‘broomy’. Ppa010082, annotated as hypothetical protein in the peach genome sequence, was identified as a candidate gene for br using a next generation sequence‐based mapping approach. Sequence similarity searches identified rice TAC1 (tiller angle control 1) as a putative ortholog, and we thus named it PpeTAC1. In monocots, TAC1 is known to lead to less compact growth by increasing the tiller angle. In Arabidopsis, an attac1 mutant showed more vertical branch growth angles, suggesting that the gene functions universally to promote the horizontal growth of branches. TAC1 genes belong to a gene family (here named IGT for a shared conserved motif) found in all plant genomes, consisting of two clades: one containing TAC1‐like genes; the other containing LAZY1, which contains an EAR motif, and promotes vertical shoot growth in Oryza sativa (rice) and Arabidopsis through influencing polar auxin transport. The data suggest that IGT genes are ancient, and play conserved roles in determining shoot growth angles in plants. Understanding how IGT genes modulate branch angles will provide insights into how different architectural growth habits evolved in terrestrial plants.     

Three physical barriers with obvious effects on Carposina sasakii selection behavior to two dominant jujube tree volatiles

The peach fruit moth (PFM), Carposina sasakii Matsumura (Lepidoptera: Carposinidae), a severe pest of Ziziphus jujuba Miller fruit trees (jujube, Rhamnaceae) mainly grown in China, has increasingly hindered the development of the jujube industry in recent years. In order to provide a theoretical basis for a physical obstruction method, we evaluated the effect of three commonly sold physical barriers on PFM host‐searching behavior. Two principal volatiles generated by the jujube tree, α‐farnesene and cis‐3‐hexenyl acetate (leaf acetate), were used as references to detect electroantennography (EAG) response values of 2‐, 4‐, and 6‐day‐old PFM adults. The results indicated different EAG responses toward α‐farnesene and leaf acetate between different ages of PFM, and males responded differently than females. The EAG responses were stronger in 4‐day‐old males to leaf acetate and in 2‐day‐old females to α‐farnesene. The two‐choice behavioral Y‐tube olfactometer assay confirmed that PFM was strongly attracted to α‐farnesene and leaf acetate. We determined the EAG and behavioral responses of PFM after spraying three kinds of physical barriers: Liquid Film Fruit Bag, High Lipid Film, and Jujube Protection No. 1. We obtained strong inhibitory effects on PFM attraction to both volatile lures using these barriers, including negative taxis by both females and males to Liquid Film Fruit Bag and Jujube Protection No. 1. We can infer that Liquid Film Fruit Bag is the most promising potential physical barrier for PFM control, with Jujube Protection No. 1 ranking as second‐best.     

Orientation behavior of Propylaea japonica toward visual and olfactory cues from its prey–host plant combination

The lady beetle Propylaea japonica (Thunberg) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) is an important predator of aphids in agroecosystems. The inundative release of coccinellid beetles can be an effective biological control strategy. An understanding of how biological control agents perceive and use stimuli from host plants is the key to successfully implement commercially produced predators. Here, we studied the relative role of visual and volatile cues. Dual‐choice assays using foraging‐naïve and foraging‐experienced P. japonica adults were conducted using cotton plants [Gossypium hirsutum L. (Malvaceae)] with or without infestation by the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii (Glover) (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Overall, experienced beetles were more attracted than naïve beetles toward cues associated with aphid‐infested plants. Experienced beetles were also more responsive to olfactory cues compared with naïve beetles. Both foraging‐naïve and ‐experienced lady beetles integrate olfactory and visual cues from plants infested with aphids, with an apparently greater reliance on olfactory cues. The results suggest that foraging experience may increase prey location in P. japonica.