Reflections on Ernst Mayr's This is Biology

In this essay I argue that Ernst Mayr's idea that the emergence of evolutionary biology in Western thought was delayed by the pernicious influence of the false ideologies of Platonism, Christianity, and physicalism is ahistorical and anti-evolutionary, that similar ideas, especially his antipathy to physicalism, prejudice his account of the transformation of natural history and medical science into biology, that his organicist resolution of the perennial conflict between mechanism and vitalism is an unstable compound of semi-holism and semi-mechanism, that his conception of biology as the true bridge between the sciences and the humanities, ethics, and social theory is open to question (especially as to the adequacy of the theory of natural selection to account for every aspect of human nature), and that his depiction of science as the sovereign key to understanding everything known to exist or happen in this universe cannot be justified at the bar of reason.     

Methodological problems in evolutionary biology VIII. Biology and culture

Biology cannot accommodate all aspects of culture. Aspects of culture that a biological approach can take into account can be covered by the biological categories of phenotype and environment. There is no need to treat culture as a separate category. Attempts to elaborate biological explanations of cultural variation will meet with success only if biologists expand theories of development, and integrate them in evolutionary biology. The alternative — elaborating the idea of so-called cultural inheritance — makes little sense from a biological point of view.     

Rapid plant regeneration of pea using thidiazuron

A simple and rapid pea regeneration procedure was developed. An average of up to 20 shoots formed from hypocotyl explants of cvs. Sugar Ann and Patriot cultured on Murashige and Skoog basal medium supplemented with 0.5 or 1.0 M thidiazuron (N-phenyl-N-1,2,3-thiadiazol-5-ylurea). Hypocotyls of Puget and Sugar Daddy did not respond. Regenerated shoots rooted rapidly when cultured on Murashige and Skoog basal medium containing either 2.0 M -naphthaleneacetic acid or 1.0–2.0 M indole-3-butyric acid. Seeds were harvested from regenerated plants after only 9–11 weeks.Abbreviations BAP 6-benzyladenine - 2,4-d 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid - GA₃ gibberellic acid - IBA indole-3-butyric acid - MS Murashige and Skoog (1962) medium - NAA -naphthaleneacetic acid - TDZ thidiazuron (N-phenyl-N-1,2,3-thiadiazol-5-ylurea)     

Individuality,pluralism, and the phylogenetic species concept

The concept of individuality as applied to species, an important advance in the philosophy of evolutionary biology, is nevertheless in need of refinement. Four important subparts of this concept must be recognized: spatial boundaries, temporal boundaries, integration, and cohesion. Not all species necessarily meet all of these. Two very different types of pluralism have been advocated with respect to species, only one of which is satisfactory. An often unrecognized distinction between grouping and ranking components of any species concept is necessary. A phylogenetic species concept is advocated that uses a (monistic) grouping criterion of monophyly in a cladistic sense, and a (pluralistic) ranking criterion based on those causal processes that are most important in producing and maintaining lineages in a particular case. Such causal processes can include actual interbreeding, selective constraints, and developmental canalization. The widespread use of the biological species concept is flawed for two reasons: because of a failure to distinguish grouping from ranking criteria and because of an unwarranted emphasis on the importance of interbreeding as a universal causal factor controlling evolutionary diversification. The potential to interbreed is not in itself a process; it is instead a result of a diversity of processes which result in shared selective environments and common developmental programs. These types of processes act in both sexual and asexual organisms, thus the phylogenetic species concept can reflect an underlying unity that the biological species concept can not.     

Effects of trichloroethylene,tetrachloroethylene and dichloromethane on enzymatic activities in soil

Summary Enzyme assays for -glucosidase, -acetylglucosaminidase, phosphatase, phosphodiesterase, and proteinase were made in soil samples incubated for two months after contamination with trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, and dichloromethane. These volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons were added at doses of 10, 100, and 1000 g per 100 g dry soil, respectively. Almost no effect was observed in soil sample contaminated with 10 g of the chemicals when compared with control soil. When 100 g of the volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons was added, the activity of -glucosidase, -acetylglucosaminidase and, in part, also of proteinase, was reduced during the first 28 days of incubation but returned to the same or slightly higher level than in the control soil after 2 months. Trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, and dichloromethane at a concentration of 1000 g per 100 g soil primarily inhibited activity of all enzymes under test. However, after two months, the enzymatic activities especially in soil samples contaminated with tetrachloroethylene and dichloromethane were found to be at the same or higher level than in the control soil.     

Theory structure,reduction, and disciplinary integration in biology

This paper examines the nature of theory structure in biology and considers the implications of those theoretical structures for theory reduction. An account of biological theories as interlevel prototypes embodying causal sequences, and related to each other by strong analogies, is presented, and examples from the neurosciences are provided to illustrate these middle-range theories. I then go on to discuss several modifications of Nagel's classical model of theory reduction, and indicate at what stages in the development of reductions these models might best apply. Finally I consider several implications of these analyses of theory structure and reduction for disciplinary integration in biology.     

Louis Agassiz (1807–1873) and the reality of natural groups

The philosophy of pattern cladism has been variously explained by reference to the work of Louis Agassiz. The present study analyzes Agassiz's attempt to combine an empirical approach to the study of nature with an idealistic philosophy. From this emerges the problem of empiricism and of the isomorphy between the order of nature and human thinking. The analysis of the writings of Louis Agassiz serves as the basis for discussion of the reality of natural groups as postulated by pattern cladists.     

Driving Bison and Blackfoot Science

Archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence of buffalo jumping is concentrated in Blackfoot (Nitsitapi) territory. Although the hardware of buffalo jumps has been documented extensively, little is known of the software, in particular the skills required to drive stampeding herds of bison over long distances to the deadfall, on foot, and often for days. The origins and nature of bison driving knowledge is explored on the basis of ethnohistory as well as Blackfoot chronicles, philosophy, and linguistics, and compared with the findings of recent field studies on the relationships between bison and wolves in the northern Great Plains. Blackfoot explanations of bison driving as knowledge learned from wolves are entirely plausible, and shed light on Blackfoot ecological methodology, as well as the development of human–canid hunting relationships generally.     

Typology Reconsidered: Two Doctrines on the History of Evolutionary Biology

Recent historiography of 19th century biology supports the revision of two traditional doctrines about the history of biology. First, the most important and widespread biological debate around the time of Darwin was not evolution versus creation, but biological functionalism versus structuralism. Second, the idealist and typological structuralist theories of the time were not particularly anti-evolutionary. Typological theories provided argumentation and evidence that was crucial to the refutation of Natural Theological creationism. The contrast between functionalist and structuralist approaches to biology continues today, and the historical misunderstanding of 19th century typological biology may be one of its effects. This historical case can shed light on current controversies regarding the relevance of developmental biology to evolution.     

An ecological approach to biosystem thermodynamics

The general attributes of ecosystems are examined and a naturally occurring reference ecosystem is established, comparable with the isolated system of classical thermodynamics. Such an autonomous system with a stable, periodic input of energy is shown to assume certain structural characteristics that have an identifiable thermodynamic basis. Individual species tend to assume a state of least dissipation; this is most clearly evident in the dominant species (the species with the best integration of energy acquisition and conservation). It is concluded that ecosystem structure results from the antagonistic interaction of two nearly equal forces. These forces have their origin in the Principle of Most Action (least dissipation or least entropy production) and the universal Principle of Least Action. Most action is contingent on the equipartitioning of the energy available, through uniform interaction of similar individuals. The trend to Least action is contingent on increased dissipation attained through increasing diversity and increasing complexity. These principles exhibit a basic asymmetry. Given the operation of these opposing principles over evolutionary time, it is argued that ecosystems originated in the vicinity of thermodynamic equilibrium through the resonant amplification of reversible fluctuations. On account of the basic asymmetry the system was able to evolve away from thermodynamic equilibrium provided that it remained within the vicinity of ergodynamic equilibrium (equilibrium maintained by internal work, where the opposing forces are equal and opposite).At the highest level of generalization there appear to be three principles operating: i) maximum association of free-energy and materials; ii) energy conservation (deceleration of the energy flow) through symmetric interaction and increased homogeneity; and iii) the principle of least action which induces acceleration of the energy flow through asymmetrical interaction. The opposition and asymmetry of the two forces give rise to natural selection and evolution.     

Large scale preparation of PA-oligosaccharides from glycoproteins using an improved extraction method

We have developed a new method for the large scale preparation of pyridylaminated (PA-) oligosaccharides from glycoproteins. Phenol/chloroform extration was adapted for the removal of protein and excess 2-aminopyridine, improving the efficiency of preparation. From a 2.5 g sample of human apo-transferrin, 25–30 mol of agalacto biantennary PA-oligosaccharide could be obtained. By increasing the concentration of PA-oligosaccharide substrate, we were able to detect a very low level ofN-acetylglucosaminlytransferase IV activity in CHO cell extracts.Abbreviations PA 2-aminopyridine - SDS sodium dodecyl sulfate - GlcNAc N-acetylglucosamine - GnT N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase - Gn,Gn-bi-PA GlcNAc1-2Man1-3(GlcNAc1-2Man1-6)Man1-4GlcNAc1-4GlcNAc-2-aminopyridine - Gn,Gn,Gn-tri-PA GlcNAc1-2(GlcNAc1-4)Man1-3(GlcNAc1-2Man1-6)Man1-4GlcNAc1-4GlcNAc-2-aminopyridine - Gn,Gn,Gn-trí-PA GlcNAc1-2Man1-3({GlcNAc1-2(GlcNAc1-6)Man1-6})Man1-4GlcNac1-4GlcNAc-2-aminopyridine - Gn,(Gn),Gn-bi-PA GlcNAc1-2Man1-3(GlcNAc1-4)(GlcNAc1-2Man1-6)Man1-4GlcNAc1-4GlcNAc-2-aminopyridine     

Comparative residual toxicities of pesticides to the predator Agistemus industani (Acari: Stigmaeidae) on citrus in Florida

Residual toxicities of registered and selected experimental pesticides used on citrus against Agistemus industani Gonzalez (Acari: Stigmaeidae) were compared. Pesticides considered highly toxic to A. industani were: abamectin 0.15 EC at 731ml/ha+FC 435-66 petroleum oil at 46.8l/ha, pyridaben 75WP at 469g/ha, ethion 4EC at 7.01l/ha+FC 435-66 petroleum oil at 46.8l/ha, propargite 6.55 EC at 3.51l/ha, chlorfenapyr 2SC at 1.46l/ha applied alone or in combination with FC 435-66 petroleum oil at 46.8l/ha, sulphur 80DF at 16.81kg/ha, dicofol 4EC at 7.01l/ha, fenbutatin oxide 50WP at 2.24kg/ha, benomyl 50WP at 2.24kg/ha, benomyl 50WP at 1.68kg/ha+ferbam 76 GF at 5.60kg/ha, ferbam 76GF at 11.21kg/ha, neem oil 90EC at 46.8l/ha, and copper hydroxide DF (40% metallic copper) at 4.48kg metallic copper/ha+FC 435-66 petroleum oil at 46.8l/ha. Pesticides that were moderately to slightly toxic included: copper sulphate 98% at 4.48kg metallic copper/ha+FC 435-66 petroleum oil at 46.8l/ha, fenbuconazole 2F at 280ml/ha+FC 435-66 petroleum oil at 46.8l/ha, FC 435-66 petroleum oil applied alone at 46.8l/ha or 23.4l/ha, and diflubenzuron 25WP at 1.40kg/ha. Pesticides that were non-toxic included: fenbuconazole 2F at 585ml/ha, malathion 57EC at 5.85l/ha, FC 435-66 petroleum oil at 46.8l/ha, carbaryl 80S at 3.36kg/ha, chlorpyrifos 4EC at 4.68l/ha, and formetanate 92SP at 1.12kg/ha. Understanding the toxic effects of field weathered pesticides against key predacious mite species is important for effective IPM. The results of this study provide a comparison of direct and indirect toxic effects of various pesticides to A. industani under field conditions.     

Binding of the galactose-specificPseudomonas aeruginosa lectin,PA-I,to glycosphingolipids and other glycoconjugates

The carbohydrate-binding specificity ofPseudomonas aeruginosa lectin I (PA-I) in iodinated or biotinylated form was studied. A large number of glycosphingolipids, as well as some glycoproteins and neoglycoproteins were used as ligands. Also, inhibition by free saccharides of PA-I binding to glycosphingolipids was tested. It was found that the lectin binds most strongly to terminal and nonsubstituted Gal3Gal- or Gal4Gal-structures.Abbreviations PA-I Pseudomonas aeruginosa lectin I - Cer ceramide - lactosylceramide Gal4GlcCer - iso globotriaosylcerami Gal3Gal4GlcCer - globotriaosylceramide Gal4Gal4GlcCer - globoside or globotetraosylceramide GalNAc3Gal4Gal4GlcCer - Forssman glycolipid GalNAc3GalNAc3Gal4Gal4GlcCer - P1 glycolipid Gal4Gal4GlcNAc3Gal4GlcCer - lactoneotetraosylceramide Gal4GlcNAc3Gal4GlcCer - B5 glycolipid Gal3Gal4GlcNAc3Gal4GlcCer - gangliotetraosylceramide Gal3GalNAc4Gal4GlcCer - GM1 Gal3GalNAc4(NeuAc3)Gal4GlcCer - RBC red blood cells - BSA bovine serum albumin - PBS phosphate-buffered saline - SDS sodium dodecyl sulfate - TLC thin-layer chromatography - HPLC high pressure liquid chromatography - MS mass spectrometry - FAB fast-atom bombardment - EI electron impact     

Obligation and the new naturalism

Although it has become increasingly evident that an adequate theory of obligation must rest on evolutionary biology and human ethology, attempts toward this end need to explore the full range of personal, cultural, and political obligations observed in our species. The new naturalism reveals the complexity of social behavior and the defects of reductionist models that oversimplify the foundations of human duties and rights. Ultimately, this approach suggest a return to the Aristotelian concept of natural justice.     

Principles of biorefineries

Sustainable economic growth requires safe, sustainable resources for industrial production. For the future re-arrangement of a substantial economy to biological raw materials, completely new approaches in research and development, production and economy are necessary. Biorefineries combine the necessary technologies between biological raw materials and industrial intermediates and final products. The principal goal in the development of biorefineries is defined by the following: (biomass) feedstock-mix + process-mix product-mix. Here, particularly the combination between biotechnological and chemical conversion of substances will play an important role. Currently the whole-crop biorefinery, green biorefinery and lignocellulose-feedstock biorefinery systems are favored in research and development.     

Primary structure of hemoglobin β-chain fromColumba livia (gray wild pigeon)

Primary structure of -chain of pigeon is presented. It was determined by amino acid sequence analysis of intact -chain and its peptides obtained by the enzymatic and chemical cleavage. Comparison of amino acid sequence of the chain with other available data shows 14 Ile, 61 Lys, and 113 Ile as residues specific to pigeon. One important replacement at ₁₁ contact is 55 MetSer.     

The adaptive significance of cultural behavior: Comments and reply

Summary Fundamentally, theoretically, there is only one process underlying genetic and cultural evolution: natural selection. Organism fitness-enhancement (adaptive significance) is one of its practical mechanisms; group formation and maintenance is another, often but not always through fitness-enhancement; and need-fulfillment is still another. If Durham can accept that formulation, and switch from organism-thinking to instruction-thinking (Cloak, 1975: 178), he will free himself from two handicaps: First, he can forget his worries about reductionism and determinism (1976a: 100, 101). Under this general theory of natural selection, cultural evolutionis biological evolution, continued by other (nongenetic) means. Second, he will spare himself the appearance of anthropomorphism, mentalism, and wishy-washiness attendant on his discussion of kinds of significance, other than adaptive significance, of cultural behaviors (1976a: 102–106, 115).     

Methodological problems in evolutionary biology VII. The species plague

Various philosophers and evolutionary biologists have recently defended the thesis that species are individuals rather than sets. A decade of debates, however, did not suffice to settle the matter. Conceptual analysis shows that many of the key terms involved (individuation, evolutionary species, spatiotemporal restrictedness, individual) are ambiguous. Current disagreements should dissolve once this is recognized. Explication of the concepts involved leads to new programs for philosophical research. It could also help biology by showing how extant controversies concerning evolution may have conceptual rather than factual roots.     

Synthesis of N-linked pentasaccharides with isomeric glycosidic linkage

As part of a program to explore the structural requirement of N-glycans in the carbohydrate-mediated biological interactions, N-linked pentasaccharide core structure was stereochemically modified in terms of glycosidic linkage. Three isomers, -D-Man-(13)-[-D-Man-(16)]--D-Man-(14)--D-GlcNAc-(14)--D-GlcNAc-L-Asn, -D-Man-(13)-[-D-Man-(16)]--D-Man-(14)--D-GlcNAc-(14)--D-GlcNAc-L-Asn, and -D-Man-(13)-[-D-man-(16)]--D-Man-(14)--D-GlcNAc-(14)--D-GlcNAc-L-Asn, were synthesized. Synthesis of the pentasaccharide with natural linkage is also described.     

Production of a novel syrup containing neofructo-oligosaccharides by the cells of Penicillium citrinum

A novel syrup containing neofructo-oligosaccharides was produced from sucrose (Brix 70) by whole cells of Penicillium citrinum. The efficiency of fructo-oligosaccharides production was more than 55% and those of the main carbohydrate components, 1-kestose (Fruf 21Fruf 21 Glc), nystose (Fruf 21Fruf 21 Fruf 21 Glc) and neokestose (Fruf 26 Glc12 Fruf), were 22, 14 and 11%, respectively.