三核苷酸重复序列失稳定机制:重复序列形成non-B二级结构的必要性和细胞反式作用因子的作用

与三核苷酸重复序列CAG.CTG、CGG·CCG和GAA·TTC扩增和缺失有关的分子机制尚不能得到清楚的阐释.体外研究表明,上述疾病相关的重复序列可以在体外形成non-B二级结构,并介导重复序列扩增.然而,迄今为止,类似的观察尚未在体内研究过程中得以实现.利用模型生物大肠杆菌和酵母等进行的有关研究并不能模拟三核苷酸重复序列的扩增,这暗示三核苷酸重复序列的体内扩增可能与重复序列形成non-B二级结构关联性并不大.尽管理论上较长的三核苷酸重复序列可以在复制和后复制过程中较易形成non-B DNA二级结构,但这样的二级结构倾向于导致重复序列出现"脆性",而不是扩增.事实上,患者所具有的三核苷酸重复序列扩增并非一定需要通过non-B二级结构的介导,这些重复序列的扩增是可以通过一种RNA转录诱导的局部DNA重复序列的复制和其后的DNA重排得以发生.     

No evidence of expansion of CAG or GAA repeats in schizophrenia families and monozygotic twins

Many diseases caused by trinucleotide expansion exhibit increased severity and decreased age of onset (genetic anticipation) in successive generations. Apparent evidence of genetic anticipation in schizophrenia has led to a search for trinucleotide repeat expansions. We have used several techniques, including Southern blot hybridization, repeat expansion detection (RED) and locus-specific PCR to search for expanded CAG/CTG repeats in 12 families from the United Kingdom and 11 from Iceland that are multiplex for schizophrenia and demonstrate anticipation. The unstable DNA theory could also explain discordance of phenotype for schizophrenia in pairs of monozygotic twins, where the affected twin has a greater number of repeats than the unaffected twin. We used these techniques to look for evidence of different CAG/CTG repeat size in 27 pairs of monozygotic twins who are either concordant or discordant for schizophrenia. We have found no evidence of an increase in CAG/CTG repeat size for affected members in the families, or for the affected twins in the MZ twin sample. Southern hybridization and RED analysis were also performed for the twin and family samples to look for evidence of expansion of GAA/TTC repeats. However, no evidence of expansion was found in either sample. Whilst these results suggest that these repeats are not involved in the etiology of schizophrenia, the techniques used for detecting repeat expansions have limits to their sensitivity. The involvement of other trinucleotide repeats or other expandable repeat sequences cannot be ruled out. Received: 8 September 1997 / Accepted: 13 March 1998     

Haploinsufficiency of yeast FEN1 causes instability of expanded CAG/CTG tracts in a length-dependent manner

Trinucleotide repeat diseases, such as Huntington's disease, are caused by the expansion of trinucleotide repeats above a threshold of about 35 repeats. Once expanded, the repeats are unstable and tend to expand further both in somatic cells and during transmission, resulting in a more severe disease phenotype. Flap endonuclease 1 (Fen1), has an endonuclease activity specific for 5' flap structures and is involved in Okazaki fragment processing and base excision repair. Fen1 also plays an important role in preventing instability of CAG/CTG trinucleotide repeat sequences, as the expansion frequency of CAG/CTG repeats is increased in FEN1 mutants in vitro and in yeast cells defective for the yeast homolog, RAD27. Here we have tested whether one copy of yeast FEN1 is enough to maintain CAG/CTG tract stability in diploid yeast cells. We found that CAG/CTG repeats are stable in RAD27 +/- cells if the tract is 70 repeats long and exhibit a slightly increased expansion frequency if the tract is 85 or 130 repeats long. However for CAG-155 tracts, the repeat expansion frequency in RAD27 +/- cells is significantly higher than in RAD27 +/+ cells. This data indicates that cells containing longer CAG/CTG repeats need more Fen1 protein to maintain tract stability and that maintenance of long CAG/CTG repeats is particularly sensitive to Fen1 levels. Our results may explain the relatively small effects seen in the Huntington's disease (HD) FEN1 +/- heterozygous mice and myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) FEN1 +/- heterozygous mice, and suggest that inefficient flap processing by Fen1 could play a role in the continued expansions seen in humans with trinucleotide repeat expansion diseases.     

Sequence analysis of genomic regions containing trinucleotide repeats isolated by a novel cloning method

A method was developed for effective isolation of trinucleotide repeats from genomic DNA. This method is based on the DNA polymerase reaction, which is restricted with only two or three nucleotide substrates and primed by biotinylated oligonucleotide probes. Sequences are then isolated by a streptavidin biotin-trapping method. More than 80% of the clones from each library contained more than eight trinucleotide repeats. Sequence analysis showed that the characteristic dinucleotide flanking sequences usually confronting various trinucleotide repeats are not found in the vicinity of CAG repeats, suggesting that CAG repeats may have been generated through a mechanism different from that of other trinucleotide repeats.     

Repair in haploid male germ cells occurs late in differentiation as chromatin is condensing

Huntington's Disease (HD) is one of eight progressive neurodegenerative disorders in which the underlying mutation is a CAG expansion encoding a polyglutamine tract. The mechanism of trinucleotide expansion remains poorly understood. We have followed heritable changes in CAG length in male transgenic mice. In germ cells, expansion is limited to the post-meiotic, haploid cell and therefore cannot involve mitotic replication or recombination between a homologous chromosome and a sister chromatid. Expansion occurs by gap filling synthesis when DNA loops comprising the CAG trinucleotide repeats are sealed into the DNA strand. Our data support a model in which expansion occurs late in male germ cell development as spermatids are entering the epididymis at a time when chromatin is condensing. These data indicate that repair can be carried out in germ cells as long as the DNA is accessible. The capacity for repair of germ cells may have important implications for future gene therapy.     

Effects of temperature, Mg2+ concentration and mismatches on triplet-repeat expansion during DNA replication in vitro.

The human genome contains many simple tandem repeats that are widely dispersed and highly polymorphic. At least one group of simple tandem repeats, the DNA trinucleotide repeats, can dramaticallyexpand in size during transmission from one generation to the next to cause disease by a process known as dynamic mutation. We investigated the ability of trinucleotide repeats AAT and CAG to expand in size during DNA replication using a minimal in vitro system composed of the repeat tract, with and without unique flanking sequences, and DNA polymerase. Varying Mg2+concentration and temperature gave dramatic expansions of repeat size during DNA replication in vitro. Expansions of up to 1000-fold were observed. Mismatches partially stabilized the repeat tracts against expansion. Expansions were only detected when the primer was complementary to the repeat tract rather than the flanking sequence. The results imply that cellular environment and whether the growing strand contains a nick or gap are important factors for the expansion process in vivo.     

Anticipation and Instability of IT-15 (CAG)N Repeats in Parent-Offspring Pairs with Huntington Disease

Huntington disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant degenerative disorder caused by an expanded and unstable trinucleotide repeat (CAG)n in a gene (IT-15) on chromosome 4. HD exhibits genetic anticipation—earlier onset in successive generations within a pedigree. From a population-based clinical sample, we ascertained parent-offspring pairs with expanded alleles, to examine the intergenerational behavior of the trinucleotide repeat and its relationship to anticipation. We find that the change in repeat length with paternal transmission is significantly correlated with the change in age at onset between the father and offspring. When expanded triplet repeats of affected parents are separated by median repeat length, we find that the longer paternal and maternal repeats are both more unstable on transmission. However, unlike in paternal transmission, in which longer expanded repeats display greater net expansion than do shorter expanded repeats, in maternal transmission there is no mean change in repeat length for either longer or shorter expanded repeats. We also confirmed the inverse relationship between repeat length and age at onset, the higher frequency of juvenile-onset cases arising from paternal transmission, anticipation as a phenomenon of paternal transmission, and greater expansion of the trinucleotide repeat with paternal transmission. Stepwise multiple regression indicates that, in addition to repeat length of offspring, age at onset of affected parent and sex of affected parent contribute significantly to the variance in age at onset of the offspring. Thus, in addition to triplet repeat length, other factors, which could act as environmental factors, genetic factors, or both, contribute to age at onset. Our data establish that further expansion of paternal repeats within the affected range provides a biological basis of anticipation in HD.     

Polymorphic (AAT)n trinucleotide repeats derived from a human brain cDNA library

Seven cDNA fragments containing polymorphic (AAT)n trinucleotide repeats were isolated from a human brain cDNA library and mapped by linkage to specific loci. These repeats may serve as gene markers or as candidates for diseases caused by expansion mutation.     

Expansion of GAA trinucleotide repeats in mammals

We have previously shown that GAA trinucleotide repeats have undergone significant expansion in the human genome. Here we present the analysis of the length distribution of all 10 nonredundant trinucleotide repeat motifs in 20 complete eukaryotic genomes (6 mammalian, 2 nonmammalian vertebrates, 4 arthropods, 4 fungi, and 1 each of nematode, amoebozoa, alveolate, and plant), which showed that the abundance of large expansions of GAA trinucleotide repeats is specific to mammals. Analysis of human-chimpanzee-gorilla orthologs revealed that loci with large expansions are species-specific and have occurred after divergence from the common ancestor. PCR analysis of human controls revealed large expansions at multiple human (GAA)(30+) loci; nine loci showed expanded alleles containing >65 triplets, analogous to disease-causing expansions in Friedreich ataxia, including two that are in introns of genes of unknown function. The abundance of long GAA trinucleotide repeat tracts in mammalian genomes represents a significant mutation potential and source of interindividual variability.     

Genetic anticipation in Portuguese kindreds with familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy is unlikely to be caused by triplet repeat expansions

Familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy (FAP) is a lethal autosomal dominant type of amyloidosis resulting from the deposition of transthyretin (ATTR) variants in the peripheral and autonomic nervous systems. ATTR V30M-associated FAP exhibits marked genetic anticipation in some families, with clinical symptoms developing at an earlier age in successive generations. The genetic basis of this phenomenon in FAP is unknown. Anticipation has been associated with the dynamic expansion of trinucleotide repeats in several neurodegenerative disorders, such as Huntington disease, myotonic dystrophy, and fragile X syndrome. We have used the repeat expansion detection (RED) assay to screen affected members of Portuguese FAP kindreds for expansion of any of the ten possible trinucleotide repeats. Nine generational pairs with differences in their age of onset greater than 12 years and a control pair with identical ages of onset were tested. No major differences were found in the lengths of the ten trinucleotide repeats analyzed. The distribution of the maximal repeat sizes was consistent with reported studies in unrelated individuals with no known genetic disease. The present data do not support a role for trinucleotide repeat expansions as the molecular mechanism underlying anticipation in Portuguese FAP. Received: 13 December 1998 / Accepted: 23 March 1999     

Mononucleotide repeats represent an important source of polymorphic microsatellite markers in Aspergillus nidulans

In fungi, microsatellites occur less frequently throughout the genome and tend to be less polymorphic compared with other organisms. Most studies that develop microsatellites for fungi focus on dinucleotide and trinucleotide repeats, and thus mononucleotide repeats, which are much more abundant in fungal genomes, may represent an overlooked resource. This study examined the relative probabilities of polymorphism in mononucleotide, dinucleotide and trinucleotide repeats in Aspergillus nidulans. As previously found, the probability of polymorphism increased with increasing number of repeating units. Dinucleotide and trinucleotide repeats had higher probabilities of polymorphism than mononucleotide repeats, but this was offset by the presence of numerous long mononucleotide repeats within the genome. Mononucleotide microsatellites with 20 or more repeating units have a probability of polymorphism similar to dinucleotide and trinucleotide microsatellites, and therefore, consideration of mononucleotide repeats will substantially increase the number of potential markers available.     

Small-molecule ligand induces nucleotide flipping in (CAG)n trinucleotide repeats

DNA trinucleotide repeats, particularly CXG, are common within the human genome. However, expansion of trinucleotide repeats is associated with a number of disorders, including Huntington disease, spinobulbar muscular atrophy and spinocerebellar ataxia. In these cases, the repeat length is known to correlate with decreased age of onset and disease severity. Repeat expansion of (CAG)n, (CTG)n and (CGG)n trinucleotides may be related to the increased stability of alternative DNA hairpin structures consisting of CXG-CXG triads with X-X mismatches. Small-molecule ligands that selectively bound to CAG repeats could provide an important probe for determining repeat length and an important tool for investigating the in vivo repeat extension mechanism. Here we report that napthyridine-azaquinolone (NA, 1) is a ligand for CAG repeats and can be used as a diagnostic tool for determining repeat length. We show by NMR spectroscopy that binding of NA to CAG repeats induces the extrusion of a cytidine nucleotide from the DNA helix.     

Thermodynamic stability of RNA structures formed by CNG trinucleotide repeats. Implication for prediction of RNA structure

Trinucleotide repeat expansion diseases (TREDs) are correlated with elongation of CNG DNA and RNA repeats to pathological level. This paper shows, for the first time, complete data concerning thermodynamic stabilities of RNA with CNG trinucleotide repeats. Our studies include the stability of oligoribonucleotides composed of two to seven of CAG, CCG, CGG, and CUG repeats. The thermodynamic parameters of helix propagation correlated with the presence of multiple N-N mismatches within CNG RNA duplexes were also determined. Moreover, the total stability of CNG RNA hairpins, as well as the contribution of trinucleotide repeats placed only in the stem or loop regions, was evaluated. The improved thermodynamic parameters allow to predict much more accurately the thermodynamic stabilities and structures of CNG RNAs.     

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 and Machado-Joseph disease: incidence of CAG expansions among adult-onset ataxia patients from 311 families with dominant, recessive, or sporadic ataxia.

The ataxias are a complex group of diseases with both environmental and genetic causes. Among the autosomal dominant forms of ataxia the genes for two, spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) and Machado-Joseph disease (MJD), have been isolated. In both of these disorders the molecular basis of disease is the expansion of an unstable CAG trinucleotide repeat. To assess the frequency of the SCA1 and MJD trinucleotide repeat expansions among individuals diagnosed with ataxia we have collected DNA from individuals representing 311 families with adult-onset ataxia of unknown etiology and screened these samples for trinucleotide repeat expansions within the SCA1 and MJD genes. Within this group there are 149 families with dominantly inherited ataxia. Of these, 3% had SCA1 trinucleotide repeat expansions, whereas 21% were positive for the MJD trinucleotide expansion. Thus, together SCA1 and MJD represent 24% of the autosomal dominant ataxias in our group, and the frequency of MJD is substantially greater than that of SCA1. For the 57 patients with MJD trinucleotide repeat expansions, a strong inverse correlation between CAG repeat size and age at onset was observed (r = -.838). Among the MJD patients, the normal and affected ranges of CAG repeat size are 14-40 and 68-82 repeats, respectively. For SCA1 the normal and affected ranges are much closer, containing 19-38 and 40-81 CAG repeats, respectively.     

Distribution and variability of trinucleotide repeats in the genome of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

We have examined the distribution of trinucleotide repeats in the yeast genome. Perfect and imperfect repeats, ranging from four to 130 triplets were recognized and the repartition of different triplet combinations was found to differ between Open Reading Frames and Intergenic Regions. Examination of different laboratory strains, revealed polymorphic size variations for all perfect repeats studied, compared to an absence of variation for the imperfect ones. Size variations were found discrete in the range of 6–18 triplets, each strain showing one allelic form for a given repeat array. The distribution and stability of trinucleotide repeats in the yeast genome resembles that of humans and may provide an experimental approach to study the mechanisms of their expansion.     

Dynamic mutations in human genes: A review of trinucleotide repeat diseases

Dynamic mutations in human genes result from unstable trinucleotide repeats embedded within the transcribed region. The changeable nature of these mutations from generation to generation is in contrast to the static inheritance of other single-gene mutational events, e.g. point mutations, deletions, insertions and inversions, typically associated with Mendelian inheritance patterns. Intergenerational instability of dynamic mutations within families has provided an explanation for the genetic anticipation, leading to increasing severity or earlier age of onset in successive generations, associated with certain inherited disorders. While models for genomic instability presume that trinucleotide repeat expansion results from disruption of the DNA replication process, experimental evidence has not yet been obtained in support of this contention. Nevertheless, examples of unstable trinucleotide repeats continue to increase, although not all are associated with a specific phenotype. Five disorders resulting from small-scale expansions of CAG repeats within the protein-coding region are known: spinobulbar muscular atrophy, Huntington’s disease, spinocerebellar ataxia type 1, dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA) and Machado-Joseph disease. A sixth disorder, Haw River syndrome, is allelic to DRPLA. Five folate-sensitive chromosomal fragile sites characterized to date, viz. FRAXA, FRAXE, FRAXF, FRA11B and FRA16A, all have large-scale CGG repeat expansion. Two disorders, fragile X syndrome and FRAXE mental retardation, result from instability of CGG repeats in the 5’ untranslated region ofFMR1 andF M R2 genes respectively. FRA11B lies close to chromosome 1 1q deletion endpoints in many Jacobsen syndrome patients and may be related to the deletion event producing partial aneuploidy for 1lq. Expansion of FRAXF and FRA16A has not been associated with a phenotype. Myotonic dystrophy results from a large-scale CTG expansion in the 3’ untranslated region of the myotonin protein kinase gene while Friedreich’s ataxia has recently been found to have a large-scale GAA repeat in the first intron ofX25. This article reviews the characteristics of trinucleotide repeat disorders and summarizes current understanding of the molecular pathophysiology.     

Structure of even/odd trinucleotide repeat sequences modulates persistence of non-B conformations and conversion to duplex

Expansion of trinucleotide repeats (TNR) has been implicated in the emergence of neurodegenerative diseases. Formation of non-B conformations such as hairpins by these repeat sequences during DNA replication and/or repair has been proposed as a contributing factor to expansion. In this work we employed a combination of fluorescence, chemical probing, optical melting, and gel shift assays to characterize the structure of a series of (CTG)(n) sequences and the kinetic parameters describing their interaction with a complementary sequence. Our structure-based experiments using chemical probing reveal that sequences containing an even or odd number of CTG repeats adopt stem-loop hairpins that differ from one another by the absence or presence of a stem overhang. Furthermore, we find that this structural difference dictates the rate at which the TNR hairpins convert to duplex with a complementary CAG sequence. Indeed, the rate constant describing conversion to (CAG)(10)/(CTG)(n) duplex is slower for sequences containing an even number of CTG repeats than for sequences containing an odd number of repeats. Thus, when both the CAG and CTG hairpins have an even number of the repeats, they display a longer lifetime relative to when the CTG hairpin has an odd number of repeats. The difference in lifetimes observed for these TNR hairpins has implications toward their persistence during DNA replication or repair events and could influence their predisposition toward expansion. Taken together, these results contribute to our understanding of trinucleotide repeats and the factors that regulate persistence of hairpins in these repetitive sequences and conversion to canonical duplex.     

CTG trinucleotide repeat "big jumps": large expansions, small mice

Trinucleotide repeat expansions are the genetic cause of numerous human diseases, including fragile X mental retardation, Huntington disease, and myotonic dystrophy type 1. Disease severity and age of onset are critically linked to expansion size. Previous mouse models of repeat instability have not recreated large intergenerational expansions ("big jumps"), observed when the repeat is transmitted from one generation to the next, and have never attained the very large tract lengths possible in humans. Here, we describe dramatic intergenerational CTG*CAG repeat expansions of several hundred repeats in a transgenic mouse model of myotonic dystrophy type 1, resulting in increasingly severe phenotypic and molecular abnormalities. Homozygous mice carrying over 700 trinucleotide repeats on both alleles display severely reduced body size and splicing abnormalities, notably in the central nervous system. Our findings demonstrate that large intergenerational trinucleotide repeat expansions can be recreated in mice, and endorse the use of transgenic mouse models to refine our understanding of triplet repeat expansion and the resulting pathogenesis.