The Src family of tyrosine protein kinases in hemopoietic signal transduction.

The Src family of tyrosine protein kinases represent an expanding class of closely related intracellular enzymes that participate in the signal transduction pathways of a variety of surface receptors. One of the more surprising aspects of the information relating Src protein kinases to receptor signaling is the apparent diversity of receptor types with which the Src-related enzymes are reported to interact physically or functionally. Traditional biochemical and genetic approaches have yielded much information regarding the interactions between the Src tyrosine protein kinases and other cellular proteins in defined cell types, and emerging technologies, most notably homologous recombination in embryonal stem cells to achieve gene "knockouts," are providing new insights into the participation of the Src-related gene products in signal transduction and development.     

RAS genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: signal transduction in search of a pathway.

Ras proteins in budding yeasts initially appeared to regulate initiation of the cell cycle in response to nutrient availability. More recent work, while clarifying the mechanism of Ras-mediated signal transduction, has undermined our notion of the signal Ras transmits. We now suspect that Ras helps to coordinate cellular metabolism and mass accumulation, but what Ras responds to is not clear.     

Human T-cell mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases are related to yeast signal transduction kinases.

Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase kinases, intermediates in a growth factor-stimulated protein kinase cascade, are dual specificity protein kinases that specifically phosphorylate and activate MAP kinases in response to extracellular signals. Here, we report the cloning of two forms of cDNA that encode this protein from human T-cells. MKK1a encodes a protein with predicted molecular size of 43,439 Da. Overexpression of this clone in COS cells led to elevated levels of protein and phorbol ester-stimulated MAP kinase kinase activity, confirming that MKK1a encodes the predicted protein. MKK1b, which appears to be an alternatively spliced form of the MKK1a gene, encodes a protein with predicted molecular size of 40,745 Da. Northern analysis revealed that the MKK1 cDNA hybridizes with a single 2.6-kilobase mRNA species in all human tissues examined. Sequence comparison shows homology to a group of yeast kinases that participate in signal transduction and to subdomain XI of other dual specificity kinase.     

Oncogenes,protein tyrosine kinases,and signal transduction

Many oncogenes encode protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs). Oncogenic mutations of these genes invariably result in constitutive activation of these PTKs. Autophosphorylation of the PTKs and tyrosine phosphorylation of their cellular substrates are essential events for transmission of the mitogenic signal into cells. The recent discovery of the characteristic amino acid sequences, of thesrc homology domains 2 and 3 (SH2 and SH3), and extensive studies on proteins containing the SH2 and SH3 domains have revealed that protein tyrosine-phosphorylation of PTKs provides phosphotyrosine sites for SH2 binding and allows extracellular signals to be relayed into the nucleus through a chain of protein-protein interactions mediated by the SH2 and SH3 domains. Studies on oncogenes, PTKs and SH2/SH3-containing proteins have made a tremendous contribution to our understanding of the mechanisms for the control of cell growth, oncogenesis, and signal transduction. This review is intended to provide an outline of the most recent progress in the study of signal transduction by PTKs.     

Mutational analysis of capping protein function in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

To investigate physiologic functions and structural correlates for actin capping protein (CP), we analyzed site-directed mutations in CAP1 and CAP2, which encode the alpha and beta subunits of CP in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mutations in four different regions caused a loss of CP function in vivo despite the presence of mutant protein in the cells. Mutations in three regions caused a complete loss of all aspects of function, including the actin distribution, viability with sac6, and localization of CP to actin cortical patches. Mutation of the fourth region led to partial loss of only one function-formation of actin cables. Some mutations retained function and exhibited the complete wild-type phenotype, and some mutations led to a complete loss of protein and therefore loss of function. The simplest hypothesis that can explain these results is that a single biochemical property is necessary for all in vivo functions. This biochemical property is most likely binding to actin filaments, because the nonfunctional mutant CPs no longer co-localize with actin filaments in vivo and because direct binding of CP to actin filaments has been well established by studies with purified proteins in vitro. More complex hypotheses, involving the existence of additional biochemical properties important for function, cannot be excluded by this analysis.     

Tor kinases are in distinct membrane-associated protein complexes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Tor1p and Tor2p kinases, targets of the immune-suppressive antibiotic rapamycin, are components of a highly conserved signaling network that couples nutrient availability and cell growth. To gain insight into the molecular basis underlying Tor-dependent signaling, we used cell fractionation and immunoaffinity chromatography to examine the physical environment of Tor2p. We found that the majority of Tor2p associates with a membrane-bound compartment along with at least four other proteins, Avo1p-Avo3p and Lst8p. Using immunogold electron microscopy, we observed that Tor2p, as well as Tor1p, localizes in punctate clusters to regions adjacent to the plasma membrane and within the cell interior, often in association with characteristic membranous tracks. Cell fractionation, coimmunoprecipitation, and immunogold electron microscopy experiments confirmed that Lst8 associates with both Tor2p as well as Tor1p at these membranous sites. In contrast, we find that Kog1, the yeast homologue of the mammalian Tor regulatory protein Raptor, interacts preferentially with Tor1p. These findings provide evidence for the existence of Tor signaling complexes that contain distinct as well as overlapping components. That these complexes colocalize to a membrane-bound compartment suggests an intimate relationship between membrane-mediated signaling and Tor activity.     

Regulation of NAD-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase by protein kinases in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The active NAD-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase of wild type yeast cells fractionated by DEAE-Sephacel chromatography was inactivated in vitro by the addition of either the cAMP-dependent or cAMP-independent protein kinases obtained from wild type cells. cAMP-dependent inhibition of glutamate dehydrogenase activity was not observed in the crude extract of bcy1 mutant cells which were deficient in the regulatory subunit of cAMP-dependent protein kinase. The cAMP-dependent protein kinase of CYR3 mutant cells, which has a high K alpha value for cAMP in the phosphorylation reaction, required a high cAMP concentration for the inactivation of NAD-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase. An increased inactivation of partially purified active NAD-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase (Mr = 450,000) was observed to correlate with increased phosphorylation of a protein subunit (Mr = 100,000) of glutamate dehydrogenase. The phosphorylated protein was labeled by an NADH analog, 5'-p-fluorosulfonyl[14C]benzoyladenosine. Activation and dephosphorylation of inactive NAD-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase fractions were observed in vitro by treatment with bovine alkaline phosphatase or crude yeast cell extracts. These results suggested that the conversion of the active form of NAD-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase to an inactive form is regulated by phosphorylation through cAMP-dependent and cAMP-independent protein kinases.     

Inositol Pyrophosphates Modulate S Phase Progression after Pheromone-induced Arrest in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Several studies have demonstrated the activation of phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (Plc) in nuclei of mammalian cells during synchronous progression through the cell cycle, but the downstream targets of Plc-generated inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate are poorly described. Phospholipid signaling in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae shares similarities with endonuclear phospholipid signaling in mammals, and many recent studies point to a role for inositol phosphates, including InsP₅, InsP₆, and inositol pyrophosphates, in mediating the action of Plc. In this study, we investigated the changes in inositol phosphate levels in α-factor-treated S. cerevisiae, which allows cells to progress synchronously through the cell cycle after release from a G₁ block. We found an increase in the activity of Plc1 early after release from the block with a concomitant increase in the levels of InsP₇ and InsP₈. Treatment of cells with the Plc inhibitor {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"U73122","term_id":"4098075","term_text":"U73122"}}U73122 prevented increases in inositol phosphate levels and blocked progression of cells through S phase after pheromone arrest. The enzymatic activity of Kcs1 in vitro and HPLC analysis of [³H]inositol-labeled kcs1Δ cells confirmed that Kcs1 is the principal kinase responsible for generation of pyrophosphates in synchronously progressing cells. Analysis of plc1Δ, kcs1Δ, and ddp1Δ yeast mutants further confirmed the role that a Plc1- and Kcs1-mediated increase in pyrophosphates may have in progression through S phase. Our data provide genetic, metabolic, and biochemical evidence that synthesis of inositol pyrophosphates through activation of Plc1 and Kcs1 plays an important role in the signaling response required for cell cycle progression after mating pheromone arrest.