Radio‐transmitters have no impact on survival of pre‐fledged American Woodcocks

American Woodcocks (Scolopax minor) are a high priority species of conservation need across most of their breeding range due to long‐term population declines. Survival of juveniles may be key to understanding these population declines, but there have been few direct estimates of juvenile woodcock survival rates, and no recent assessment of the possible effect of radio‐tagging on juvenile survival. In 2011 and 2012, we radio‐tagged 73 juvenile American Woodcocks in west‐central Minnesota and compared survival rates of radio‐tagged (N = 58) and non‐radio‐tagged (N = 82) juveniles during the period from hatching to fledging. We compared survival rates of juveniles with known fates and used logistic‐exposure models to assess the potential impact of radio‐transmitters on survival. We evaluated variables related to juvenile survival including age, hatch date, maximum and minimum temperature, precipitation, and year to assess the possible effects of radio‐transmitters. The best‐supported model of survival rate of juvenile American Woodcocks included the interaction of age and year and a negative effect of precipitation (β = ?0.76, 85% CI: ?1.08 to ?0.43), but did not include a negative effect of transmitters. Our results suggest that radio‐transmitters did not impact survival of juvenile American Woodcocks and that transmitters are a reliable tool for studying survival of juvenile American Woodcocks, and perhaps other precocial shorebirds.     

Postfledging survival of eastern bluebirds in an urbanized landscape

Golf courses ostensibly offer green space in urbanized areas, but it is unclear how suitable these human-modified habitats are for wildlife populations. Golf courses are home to a variety of wildlife, but in particular they have been the focus of research on avian responses to urbanization. Although numerous reproductive and diversity studies have been conducted on birds of golf courses, no research exists on postfledging survival in this created landscape. In 2008 and 2009, we estimated survival of eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis) fledglings using radio telemetry on golf course and other developed sites in Williamsburg, Virginia. We used nest survival models in Program MARK set in an information theoretic framework to assess whether the golf course habitat predicted mortality along with other previously studied variables, such as fledgling age, year, site, body condition, fledging date, and transmitter weight. We found no evidence that inhabiting a golf course increased mortality during the fledgling period, but we did find support for both fledgling age and fledging date as predictors of survival. Mortality decreased for older fledglings and those that fledged later in the season. Cause-specific postfledging survival rates did not differ among sites. Fledgling bluebirds did, however, move into habitat that was significantly more forested and less grassy than their natal habitat. For managers of wildlife on golf courses and other urbanized sites, our study is the first to show that placing nest boxes in manicured habitat may attract birds to areas without suitable habitat for fledglings. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Habitat use and movement patterns by dependent and independent juvenile Grasshopper Sparrows during the post‐fledging period

The post‐fledging period is a critical life stage for young grassland birds. Habitat selection by recently fledged birds may differ from that of adults and may change as juveniles transition from the care and protection of parents to independence. To describe patterns of habitat selection during these important life stages, we studied habitat use by juvenile Grasshopper Sparrows (Ammodramus savannarum) in a Conservation Reserve Program grassland in Maryland. We used radio‐telemetry to track daily movement patterns of two age classes of Grasshopper Sparrows during the post‐fledging period. Sparrows were classified as either dependent (<32‐d‐old) or independent (≥32‐d‐old). We characterized the vegetation at 780 vegetation plots (390 plots where birds were located and 390 paired random plots). Microhabitats where dependent birds were found had significantly more bare ground, litter, and plant species richness than paired random plots. In addition, dependent birds were found in plots with less bare ground, more warm‐season grass cover, more total vegetation cover, and more forb cover than plots used by independent birds. Plots where independent birds were located also had significantly more bare ground than random plots. Dependent birds are less able to escape from predators because their flight feathers are not fully grown so they may benefit from remaining in areas of greater vegetation cover. However, juveniles transitioning from dependence to independence must forage on their own, possibly explaining their increased use of more open areas where foraging may be easier. To properly manage habitat for grassland birds, management strategies must consider the changing needs of birds during different stages of development. Our results highlight the importance of diverse grassland ecosystems for juvenile grassland birds during the transition to independence.     

The post‐fledging period in a tropical bird: patterns of parental care and survival

How environmental conditions affect the timing and extent of parental care is a fundamental question in comparative studies of life histories. The post‐fledging period is deemed critical for offspring fitness, yet few studies have examined this period, particularly in tropical birds. Tropical birds are predicted to have extended parental care during the post‐fledging period and this period may be key to understanding geographic variation in avian reproductive strategies. We studied a neotropical passerine, the western slaty‐antshrike Thamnophilus atrinucha, and predicted greater care and higher survival during the post‐fledging period compared to earlier stages. Furthermore, we predicted that duration of post‐fledging parental care and survival would be at the upper end of the distribution for Northern Hemisphere passerines. Correspondingly, we observed that provisioning continued for 6–12 weeks after fledging. In addition, provisioning rate was greater after fledging and offspring survival from fledging to independence was 75%, greater than all estimates from north‐temperate passerines. Intervals between nesting attempts were longer when the first brood produced successful fledglings compared to nests where offspring died either in the nest or upon fledging. Parents delayed initiating second nests after the first successful brood until fledglings were near independence. Our results indicate that parents provide greater care after fledging and this extended care likely increased offspring survival. Moreover, our findings of extended post‐fledging parental care and higher post‐fledging survival compared to Northern Hemisphere species have implications for understanding latitudinal variation in reproductive effort and parental investment strategies.     

Variable fledging age according to group size: trade-offs in a cooperatively breeding bird

Group living can provide individuals with several benefits, including cooperative vigilance and lower predation rates. Individuals in larger groups may be less vulnerable to predation due to dilution effects, efficient detection or greater ability to repel predators. Individuals in smaller groups may consequently employ alternative behavioural tactics to compensate for their greater vulnerability to predators. Here, we describe how pied babbler (Turdoides bicolor) fledging age varies with group size and the associated risk of nestling predation. Nestling predation is highest in smaller groups, but there is no effect of group size on fledgling predation. Consequently, small groups fledge young earlier, thereby reducing the risk of predation. However, there is a cost to this behaviour as younger fledglings are less mobile than older fledglings: they move shorter distances and are less likely to successfully reach the communal roost tree. The optimal age to fledge young appears to depend on the trade-off between reduced nestling predation and increased fledgling mobility. We suggest that such trade-offs may be common in species where group size critically affects individual survival and reproductive success.     

Post‐fragmentation population structure in a cooperative breeding Afrotropical cloud forest bird: emergence of a source‐sink population network

The impact of demographic parameters on the genetic population structure and viability of organisms is a long‐standing issue in the study of fragmented populations. Demographic and genetic tools are now readily available to estimate census and effective population sizes and migration and gene flow rates with increasing precision. Here we analysed the demography and genetic population structure over a recent 15‐year time span in five remnant populations of Cabanis's greenbul (Phyllastrephus cabanisi), a cooperative breeding bird in a severely fragmented cloud forest habitat. Contrary to our expectation, genetic admixture and effective population sizes slightly increased, rather than decreased between our two sampling periods. In spite of small effective population sizes in tiny forest remnants, none of the populations showed evidence of a recent population bottleneck. Approximate Bayesian modelling, however, suggested that differentiation of the populations coincided at least partially with an episode of habitat fragmentation. The ratio of meta‐N_e to meta‐N_c was relatively low for birds, which is expected for cooperative breeding species, while N_e/N_c ratios strongly varied among local populations. While the overall trend of increasing population sizes and genetic admixture may suggest that Cabanis's greenbuls increasingly cope with fragmentation, the time period over which these trends were documented is rather short relative to the average longevity of tropical species. Furthermore, the critically low N_c in the small forest remnants keep the species prone to demographic and environmental stochasticity, and it remains open if, and to what extent, its cooperative breeding behaviour helps to buffer such effects.     

Edge effect and structure of mixed-species bird flocks in an Afrotropical lowland forest

Avian mixed-species flocks are a dominant feature of tropical moist forests, yet their cost–benefit balance and habitat dependence in Africa are not fully documented. We recorded the composition of mixed-species bird flocks in a pristine Afrotropical lowland forest site in Salonga NP, DRC. Our data showed that at least four types of flock existed, one of which specialized on edge habitats. We used multivariate analyses to further characterize edge effect on the most documented mixed-species flock type and found a significant effect on flock composition. While neither species guild nor preferential foraging stratum played an important role in flock participation, the nucleus role was played by a different species at the edge and in the interior, and both species abundance and associations were habitat-dependant, suggesting “domino effects” on the structure of mixed-species flocks.     

Divergent post‐breeding distribution and habitat associations of fledgling and adult Black‐footed Albatrosses Phoebastria nigripes in the North Pacific

Past tracking studies of marine animals have primarily targeted adults, biasing our understanding of at‐sea habitat use toward older life stages. Anthropogenic threats persist throughout the at‐sea ranges of all life stages and it is therefore of interest to population ecologists and managers alike to understand spatiotemporal distributions and possible niche differentiation between age‐classes. In albatrosses, particularly little is known about the juvenile life stage when fledglings depart the colonies and venture to sea with no prior experience or parental guidance. We compared the dispersal of 22 fledgling Black‐footed Albatross Phoebastria nigripes between 2006 and 2008 using satellite telemetry and 16 adults between 2008 and 2009 using geolocaters from Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, Northwest Hawaiian Islands. Following tag deployment, all fledglings spent several days within the calm atoll waters, then travelled northward until reaching 750–900 km from the colony. At this point, fledgling distributions approached the productive North Pacific Transition Zone (NPTZ). Rather than reaching the high chlorophyll a densities on the leading edge of this zone, however, fledglings remained in areas of low productivity in the subtropical gyre. In contrast, adult albatrosses from the same breeding colony did not utilize the NPTZ at this time of year but rather ranged throughout the highly productive northern periphery of the Pacific Ocean Basin among the shelf regions off Japan and the Aleutian Islands. The dichotomy in habitat use between fledglings and adults from Midway Atoll results in complete spatial segregation between age‐classes and suggests ontogenetic niche separation in this species. This research fills a large knowledge gap in at‐sea habitat use during a little known yet critical life stage of albatrosses, and contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of differential mortality pressure between age‐classes and overall conservation status for the vulnerable Black‐footed Albatross.     

Home‐ranges,population densities,vocal behavior,and post‐fledging movements of Cipo Canasteros (Asthenes luizae,Furnariidae), a rock‐specialist endemic of the highlands of eastern Brazil

Cipo Canasteros (Asthenes luizae, Furnariidae) have a fragmented and limited range restricted to the campos rupestres (rupestrian grasslands) habitat in the Brazilian highlands of the Espinhaço Range, and little is known about their behavior, ecology, and population biology. From March 2009 to November 2010, we monitored birds (24 banded and 22 radio‐tracked) at two study sites at Serra do Cipó in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, to estimate their home‐range sizes and population density, and describe their habitat use, natal dispersal behavior, and vocal behavior. We found an average density of 8.7 paired adults/km² in our study areas or 22.9 paired adults/km² when considering only used habitats. The sex ratio was male‐biased (males/total adults = 0.68), adults exhibited high site fidelity, home‐ranges averaged 4.0 ha (fixed kernel 95%) or 3.5 ha (95% minimum convex polygon) in size, and both sexes defended territories year‐round. We recorded four main types of songs, including two uttered more often during the breeding season. We monitored the natal dispersal of two males and one female who moved maximum distances of 1238 m, 780 m, and 1056 m, respectively, from natal areas. Our results confirm that Cipo Canasteros are restricted to the rocky‐outcrop habitat of the campos rupestres. In part due to their habitat specialization, Cipo Canasteros are considered Near Threatened, but other factors contributing to their demographic fragility include the small number, and probably low survival, of females and low reproductive success due to predation and brood parasitism by cowbirds. Given these threats, along with their specialized habitat and restricted range, the future conservation of Cipo Canasteros will likely depend on the extent to which their campos rupestres habitat can be conserved.     

Equal nonbreeding period survival in adults and juveniles of a long‐distant migrant bird

In migrant birds, survival estimates for the different life‐history stages between fledging and first breeding are scarce. First‐year survival is shown to be strongly reduced compared with annual survival of adult birds. However, it remains unclear whether the main bottleneck in juvenile long‐distant migrants occurs in the postfledging period within the breeding ranges or en route. Quantifying survival rates during different life‐history stages and during different periods of the migration cycle is crucial to understand forces driving the evolution of optimal life histories in migrant birds. Here, we estimate survival rates of adult and juvenile barn swallows (Hirundo rustica L.) in the breeding and nonbreeding areas using a population model integrating survival estimates in the breeding ranges based on a large radio‐telemetry data set and published estimates of demographic parameters from large‐scale population‐monitoring projects across Switzerland. Input parameters included the country‐wide population trend, annual productivity estimates of the double‐brooded species, and year‐to‐year survival corrected for breeding dispersal. Juvenile survival in the 3‐week postfledging period was low (S = 0.32; SE = 0.05), whereas in the rest of the annual cycle survival estimates of adults and juveniles were similarly high (S > 0.957). Thus, the postfledging period was the main survival bottleneck, revealing the striking result that nonbreeding period mortality (including migration) is not higher for juveniles than for adult birds. Therefore, focusing future research on sources of variation in postfledging mortality can provide new insights into determinants of population dynamics and life‐history evolution of migrant birds.     

Factors affecting breeding season survival of red-headed woodpeckers in South Carolina

Red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) populations have declined in the United States and Canada over the past 40 years. However, few demographic studies have been published on the species and none have addressed adult survival. During 2006–2007, we estimated survival probabilities of 80 radio-tagged red-headed woodpeckers during the breeding season in mature loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) forests in South Carolina. We used known-fate models in Program MARK to estimate survival within and between years and to evaluate the effects of foliar cover (number of available cover patches), snag density treatment (high density vs. low density), and sex and age of woodpeckers. Weekly survival probabilities followed a quadratic time trend, being lowest during mid-summer, which coincided with the late nestling and fledgling period. Avian predation, particularly by Cooper's (Accipiter cooperii) and sharp-shinned hawks (A. striatus), accounted for 85% of all mortalities. Our best-supported model estimated an 18-week breeding season survival probability of 0.72 (95% CI = 0.54–0.85) and indicated that the number of cover patches interacted with sex of woodpeckers to affect survival; females with few available cover patches had a lower probability of survival than either males or females with more cover patches. At the median number of cover patches available (n = 6), breeding season survival of females was 0.82 (95% CI = 0.54–0.94) and of males was 0.60 (95% CI = 0.42–0.76). The number of cover patches available to woodpeckers appeared in all 3 of our top models predicting weekly survival, providing further evidence that woodpecker survival was positively associated with availability of cover. Woodpecker survival was not associated with snag density. Our results suggest that protection of ≥0.7 cover patches per ha during vegetation control activities in mature pine forests will benefit survival of this Partners In Flight Watch List species. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

The effect of catch‐and‐release angling at high water temperatures on behaviour and survival of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar during spawning migration

In this study, behaviour and survival following catch‐and‐release (C&R) angling was investigated in wild Atlantic salmon Salmo salar (n = 75) angled on sport fishing gear in the River Otra in southern Norway at water temperatures of 16·3–21·1° C. Salmo salar were tagged externally with radio transmitters and immediately released back into the river to simulate a realistic C&R situation. The majority of S. salar (91%) survived C&R. Most S. salar that were present in the River Otra during the spawning period 3–4 months later were located at known spawning grounds. Downstream movements (median furthest position: 0·5 km, range: 0·1–11·0 km) during the first 4 days after release were recorded for 72% of S. salar, presumably stress‐induced fallback associated with C&R. Individuals that fell back spent a median of 15 days before commencing their first upstream movement after release, and 34 days before they returned to or were located above their release site. Mortality appeared to be somewhat elevated at the higher end of the temperature range (14% at 18–21° C), although sample sizes were low. In conclusion, C&R at water temperatures up to 18° C had small behavioural consequences and was associated with low mortality (7%). Nevertheless, low levels of mortality occur due to C&R angling and these losses should be accounted for by management authorities in rivers where C&R is practised. Refinement of best practices for C&R may help to reduce mortality, particularly at warmer temperatures.     

Diurnal space use and nocturnal roost‐site selection by male Cerulean Warblers during the breeding season

Detailed information about space use during the breeding season is limited for most Nearctic‐Neotropical migratory species of songbirds because of their small size and often cryptic behaviors. We monitored male Cerulean Warblers (Setophaga cerulea), a species of conservation concern, using radio‐telemetry during the 2006–2008 breeding seasons in northern Alabama to better understand their space use and habitat selection. We estimated diurnal home range and core areas using information theoretic criteria, located nocturnal roost sites, and related day and evening locations to surrounding landscape habitat, including features representative of canopy disturbances. Mean home range size was 6.7 ha (N = 10), and home ranges included an average of at least 2 core areas encompassing 0.7 ha. We located 53 nocturnal roost sites that were an average 159.0 m from the center of the nearest core area. More than one‐third (36.6%) of roost sites were located outside the diurnal home ranges of male Cerulean Warblers; only 13.6% were located in core areas. Males in our study moved much farther than reported in previous studies, with some singing in areas > 300 m from previously used song perches, a behavior suggesting pursuit of extra‐pair copulations. Cerulean Warblers in our study preferentially selected a heavily forested landscape composed of mesic, floodplain bottomlands with little man‐made disturbance. Within their home ranges, diurnal locations of males in core areas were located significantly closer to a creek than locations outside of core areas. Our results suggest that male Cerulean Warblers require much larger areas than previously reported and underscore the importance of a predominately forested landscape in their habitat selection process. Although edge habitats appeared to influence space use by male Cerulean Warblers in our study, the extent to which this is an essential requirement is unclear. Our results and those of previous studies suggest that specific habitat requirements of this species can vary at the local scale throughout its breeding range.     

Group chorusing as an intragroup signal in the greater ani,a communally breeding bird

Group living often requires maintaining dynamic and varied relationships with fellow group members, while simultaneously monitoring and interacting with external competitors. Group members in many social species vocalize together to produce duets or choruses—coordinated, often conspicuous vocal displays—that may play a role in these interactions. Compared with male–female duets, however, relatively little research exists on the function and adaptive significance of group choruses, which involve three or more individuals. Here we investigate chorusing behavior in the greater ani (Crotophaga major), a communally breeding cuckoo that nests in stable social groups of four to eight unrelated individuals. Groups may remain together for several years on the same nesting territory, and groups occasionally destroy each other's clutches in conflicts over high-quality territories. We asked whether the raucous, highly stereotyped choruses performed by ani groups are primarily used for intra- or intergroup communication, and whether they contain information about the identity of the social group and the number of birds vocalizing. Behavioral observations and acoustic recordings from three breeding seasons revealed that choruses typically occurred during social interactions within the group (78% of choruses) or in response to a predator or extra-group individual (17%) and only rarely in intergroup interactions (4%). Consistent with this finding, choruses did not reliably reflect the number of birds vocalizing, and we found only limited evidence for group-specific acoustic signatures (driven by a single group whose choruses were highly distinct). These results suggest that group choruses play an important role in intra-group signaling, potentially in contexts such as group formation, reinforcement of social bonds within the group, and/or collective decision-making, and they motivate new research questions about the role of collective signaling in social evolution.     

Activity of free‐living subterranean blind mole rats Spalax galili (Rodentia: Spalacidae) in an area of supposed sympatric speciation

Subterranean rodents forage underground, which is energetically costly. Therefore, they can be expected to economize burrowing activity in response to food supply and soil characteristics. We analyzed the activity of radio‐tracked blind mole rats, Spalax galili, on a locality sharply subdivided into harder but relatively food‐rich, basaltic soil and softer, relatively food‐poor rendzina. It was recently proposed that the mole rats in this locality are undergoing sympatric ecological speciation. We predicted that mole rats from basaltic soil would be less active than those from rendzina as a result of the reduced need for burrowing to reach food. By contrast to our predictions, mole rats from basaltic soil were more frequently located outside the nest and observed pushing soil above ground. We suggest that this is a result of territorial behaviour due to high population density. All mole rats exhibited a unimodal daily activity pattern likely related to temperature. Large males had large but gradually decreasing home‐ranges, likely indicating the end of the mating season. We conclude that the ecological differences between the habitats cause behavioural differences in the mole rats, which indicates different selection pressures. The genetic divergence previously found between the populations might have arisen via density‐dependent selection.     

Assessing the short‐term effects of capture,handling and tagging of sandgrouse

Capturing and marking free‐living birds permits the study of important aspects of their biology but may have undesirable effects. Bird welfare should be a primary concern, so it is necessary to evaluate and minimize any adverse effects of procedures used. We assess short‐term effects associated with the capture, handling and tagging with backpack‐mounted transmitters of Pin‐tailed Pterocles alchata and Black‐bellied Pterocles orientalis Sandgrouse, steppe birds of conservation concern. There was a significantly higher mortality (15%) during the first week after capture than during the following weeks (< 2.5%) in Pin‐tailed Sandgrouse, but no significant temporal mortality pattern in Black‐bellied Sandgrouse. In Pin‐tailed Sandgrouse, mortality rate during the first week increased with increasing relative transmitter and harness weight regardless of season, and with increasing handling time during the breeding season. There were no significant differences in mortality rate between study areas, type of tag, sex or age or an effect of restraint time. These results suggest the use of lighter transmitters (< 3% of the bird's weight) and a reduction of handling time (< 20 min), particularly during the breeding season, as essential improvements in procedure to reduce the mortality risk associated with the capture, handling and tagging of these vulnerable species.     

Apparent survival of an Arctic‐breeding migratory bird over 44 years of fluctuating population size

Following increases in numbers during the second half of the 20th century, several Arctic‐breeding migrant bird species are now undergoing sustained population declines. These include the northwest European population of Bewick's Swan Cygnus columbianus bewickii, which declined from c. 29 000 birds on the wintering grounds in 1995 to 18 000 in 2010. It is unclear whether this decrease reflects reduced survival, emigration to a different area, or a combination of both. Furthermore, the environmental drivers of any demographic changes are also unknown. We therefore used an information‐theoretic approach in RMark to analyse a dataset of 3929 individually marked and resighted Bewick's Swans to assess temporal trends and drivers of survival between the winters of 1970/71 and 2014/2015, while accounting for effects of age, sex and different marker types. The temporal trend in apparent survival rates over our study period was best explained by different survival rates for each decade, with geometric mean survival rates highest in the 1980s (leg‐ring marked birds = 0.853, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.830–0.873) and lowest in the 2010s (leg‐ring = 0.773, 95% CI 0.738–0.805; neck‐collar = 0.725, 95% CI 0.681–0.764). Mean (±95% CI) resighting probabilities over the study period were higher for birds marked with neck‐collars (0.91 ± 0.01) than for those marked with leg‐rings (0.70 ± 0.02). Weather conditions in different areas across the flyway, food resources on the winter grounds, density‐dependence and the growth of numbers at a relatively new wintering site (the Evros Delta in Greece) all performed poorly as explanatory variables of apparent survival. None of our 18 covariates accounted for more than 7.2% of the deviance associated with our survival models, with a mean of only 2.2% of deviance explained. Our results provide long‐term demographic information needed to help conservationists understand the population dynamics of Bewick's Swans in northwest Europe.     

Improving our understanding of demographic monitoring: avian breeding productivity in a tropical dry forest

The ratio of juvenile to adult birds in mist‐net samples is used to monitor avian productivity, but whether it is a “true” estimate of per capita productivity or an index proportional to productivity depends on whether capture probability is not age‐dependent (true estimate) or age difference in capture probability is consistent among years (index). Better understanding of the processes affecting age‐ and year‐specific capture probabilities is needed to advance the application of constant‐effort mist‐netting for monitoring and conservation, particularly in many tropical settings where capture rates are often low. We ranked members of the avian community by capture frequencies, determined if temporary emigration influenced the availability of birds to be captured, and assessed the distribution of birds relative to mist‐nets and the parity between capture‐based productivity estimates and number of fledglings in nest plots in a tropical dry forest in Puerto Rico in 2009 and 2010. Few captures characterized the community of 25 resident species and, when estimable, capture probabilities were low, particularly for juveniles (typically < 0.1). Negative trends in capture probability, temporary emigration, and the distribution of birds suggest that avoidance of mist‐nets influenced capture rates in our study. Increasing mist‐net coverage or moving mist‐nets between sampling periods could increase capture rates. The number of fledglings observed in nest plots (25 ha/plot) did not correlate well with capture‐derived estimates (20 ha/net stations), suggesting the presence of immigrants or failure to find all nests. Our results suggest that indices of breeding productivity from mist‐netting data may track temporal changes in productivity, but such data likely do not reflect “true” productivity in most cases unless age‐specific differences in capture probability are incorporated into estimates. Pilot studies should be conducted to evaluate capture rates and the spatial extent sampled by mist‐nets to improve sampling design and inferences before informing decisions.