Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Cat Care and Needs Scale (CCANS)

The objective of this study was to develop a brief scale, primarily intended for research applications, that measures how well people report meeting the welfare needs of their pet cats. The practice of keeping cats as a companion animal has increased, and despite their popularity, many cats suffer from poor welfare and behavioral problems. The failure to meet their welfare needs and provide for natural behaviors impacts their quality of life and may affect cats’ retention in adoptive homes. We present three studies in which we developed, piloted, and psychometrically evaluated the Cat Care and Needs Scale (CCANS) by surveying cat guardians, examining their selfreported care-taking habits and interactions in regards to a pet cat. The final study (n = 1,591) resulted in a 15-item scale which shows high reliability, with application of item response theory indicating that individual items were all suitable for inclusion. Diverse evidence, including a factor analysis, parallel analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis, supports that the scale is unidimensional. The CCANS is scalable and allows for correlational comparisons with other scales which measure any variable of interest in research exploring human–companion animal relationships or cat welfare. We propose that the CCANS scale is a step forward in measuring how well pet owners understand and meet their cats’ behavioral, welfare, and basic care needs.     

Dissociated Roles of the Inferior Frontal Gyrus and Superior Temporal Sulcus in Audiovisual Processing: Top-Down and Bottom-Up Mismatch Detection

Visual inputs can distort auditory perception, and accurate auditory processing requires the ability to detect and ignore visual input that is simultaneous and incongruent with auditory information. However, the neural basis of this auditory selection from audiovisual information is unknown, whereas integration process of audiovisual inputs is intensively researched. Here, we tested the hypothesis that the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and superior temporal sulcus (STS) are involved in top-down and bottom-up processing, respectively, of target auditory information from audiovisual inputs. We recorded high gamma activity (HGA), which is associated with neuronal firing in local brain regions, using electrocorticography while patients with epilepsy judged the syllable spoken by a voice while looking at a voice-congruent or -incongruent lip movement from the speaker. The STS exhibited stronger HGA if the patient was presented with information of large audiovisual incongruence than of small incongruence, especially if the auditory information was correctly identified. On the other hand, the IFG exhibited stronger HGA in trials with small audiovisual incongruence when patients correctly perceived the auditory information than when patients incorrectly perceived the auditory information due to the mismatched visual information. These results indicate that the IFG and STS have dissociated roles in selective auditory processing, and suggest that the neural basis of selective auditory processing changes dynamically in accordance with the degree of incongruity between auditory and visual information.     

Perceptions of Veterinarians in British Columbia of Cat Management Strategies to Reduce Cat Overpopulation and Impacts on Wildlife Populations

ABSTRACT

Free-roaming cats present a multidisciplinary challenge for wildlife conservation and feline welfare. Veterinary professionals are critical stake-holders in the issue of free-roaming cats, making it imperative that their attitudes and perspectives are well understood. In this study, we conducted an electronic survey of veterinarians practicing across British Columbia to evaluate their perceptions of 1) whether cat overpopulation is a concern, 2) the impacts of cats on wildlife, and 3) alternative management strategies for dealing with cat overpopulation. Of the 389 respondents, 56% agreed that cat overpopulation was a local problem, and 91% agreed that veterinarians play a role in reducing cat overpopulation. Veterinarians in rural communities had a greater involvement in cat overpopulation and perceived it as more problematic than their urban colleagues. The majority (70%) of veterinarians reported that they performed early-age sterilization, supported the principle of low-cost spay-neuter services (67%), and 65% of them were involved in these services. Just over half (54%) of respondents reported that they provide permanent identification to cats, typically offering both microchips and tattoos. Veterinarians were less cohesive on their perceptions of the impact of free-roaming cats on wildlife: 53% agreed that after habitat loss cats are one of the most significant, direct causes of bird and wildlife mortality, while 30% were neutral and 17% disagreed. Fifty-six percent of veterinarians felt that keeping cats indoors would be one of the most effective strategies to reduce cat impacts on wildlife, but they also felt that public education programs and low-cost spay-neuter programs would be effective and more popular with cat owners. Most veterinarians (79%) recommended against unsupervised outdoor access, citing safety and disease risks. Rodent control was the most common reason for not recommending an indoor lifestyle. Overall, our survey results suggest that veterinarians are committed participants in the prevention of cat overpopulation. Conservationists need to focus on increased engagement with veterinarians regarding the impact of cats on wildlife.     

Activation of the Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus in the First 200 ms of Reading: Evidence from Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Background

It is well established that the left inferior frontal gyrus plays a key role in the cerebral cortical network that supports reading and visual word recognition. Less clear is when in time this contribution begins. We used magnetoencephalography (MEG), which has both good spatial and excellent temporal resolution, to address this question.

Methodology/Principal Findings

MEG data were recorded during a passive viewing paradigm, chosen to emphasize the stimulus-driven component of the cortical response, in which right-handed participants were presented words, consonant strings, and unfamiliar faces to central vision. Time-frequency analyses showed a left-lateralized inferior frontal gyrus (pars opercularis) response to words between 100–250 ms in the beta frequency band that was significantly stronger than the response to consonant strings or faces. The left inferior frontal gyrus response to words peaked at ∼130 ms. This response was significantly later in time than the left middle occipital gyrus, which peaked at ∼115 ms, but not significantly different from the peak response in the left mid fusiform gyrus, which peaked at ∼140 ms, at a location coincident with the fMRI–defined visual word form area (VWFA). Significant responses were also detected to words in other parts of the reading network, including the anterior middle temporal gyrus, the left posterior middle temporal gyrus, the angular and supramarginal gyri, and the left superior temporal gyrus.

Conclusions/Significance

These findings suggest very early interactions between the vision and language domains during visual word recognition, with speech motor areas being activated at the same time as the orthographic word-form is being resolved within the fusiform gyrus. This challenges the conventional view of a temporally serial processing sequence for visual word recognition in which letter forms are initially decoded, interact with their phonological and semantic representations, and only then gain access to a speech code.     

A Comparison of Zoo Animal Behavior in the Presence of Familiar and Unfamiliar People

As recorded in domestic nonhuman animals, regular interactions between animals in zoos and keepers and the resulting relationship formed (human–animal relationship [HAR]) are likely to influence the animals' behaviors with associated welfare consequences. HAR formation requires that zoo animals distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people. This ability was tested by comparing zoo animal behavioral responses to familiar (routine) keepers and unfamiliar keepers (participants in the “Keeper for the Day” program). Study subjects included 1 African elephant (Loxodonta Africana), 3 Rothschild's giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi), 2 Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris), and 2 slender-tailed meerkats (Suricata suricatta). Different behavior was evident and observed as decreased avoidance behavior toward familiar keepers (t₇ = 6.00, p < .001). This finding suggests the zoo animals have a lower level of fear toward familiar keepers. Keeper familiarity did not significantly affect any other behavioral measure. This finding suggests that in the current study, unfamiliar keeper presence did not appear to have detrimental effects. Furthermore, unfamiliar keeper–animal interactions could provide an increased number of positive human–animal interactions and potentially enhance animal welfare.     

不同激素和注射方式对家猫超排效果的比较

比较了PMSG hCG和FSH hCG两种方案以及PMSG的不同剂量和注射方式对家猫的超排效果的影响。用 1 0 0IU的PMSG超排家猫所得到的排卵点数及平均每只猫获得的卵数显著低于 2 0 0IU处理组或 30 0IU处理组 (P <0 0 5 ) ,但 2 0 0IU处理组与 30 0IU处理组之间的超排效果也无显著差异 (P >0 0 5 ) ;用皮下注射 2 0 0IU的PMSG或用肌肉注射 2 0 0IU的PMSG对超排效果无差异 (P >0 0 5 ) ;用 2 0 0IUPMSG 2 0 0IUhCG和 1 5mgFSH 2 0 0IUhCG两种方案对家猫超排 ,发现不论是每只猫的排卵点数、卵子获得数 ,还是卵子的第一极体排放率都没有显著差异 (P >0 0 5 )。实验说明 ,PMSG的注射方式不影响对家猫的超排效果 ,用 2 0 0IU的PMSG超排家猫是较适合的剂量 ,FSH和PMSG都可用于家猫的超排 ,但PMSG使用更为方便。     

Fear of dogs in a community sample: Effects of age,gender and prior experience of canine aggression

Abstract

An investigation was conducted into human fear of dogs and experiences of canine aggression in an adult community sample (n = 292). Consistent with expectations, it was found that, while fear of dogs was relatively common (present in almost half the respondents), fear of dog attacks was less so, and extreme fear of dog attacks was very rare. Women, middle-aged and older adults were more likely to fear dogs than men and younger adults, while older people were more likely than younger ones to fear dog attacks. Reported encounters with canine aggression, particularly threatening behavior, were relatively common, but having been attacked by a dog was less strongly related to fear of dogs than having been threatened by a dog. Logistic regression analyses revealed that being female, having been threatened by a dog, and being older were strong predictors of dog-related fear, while being older and obtaining higher scores on a measure of trait anxiety predicted fear of dog attacks.     

Development of a tactile stimulator with simultaneous visual and auditory stimulation using E-Prime software

In this study, a tactile stimulator was developed, which can stimulate visual and auditory senses simultaneously by using the E-Prime software. This study tried to compensate for systematic stimulation control and other problems that occurred with previously developed tactile stimulators. The newly developed system consists of three units: a control unit, a drive unit and a vibrator. Since the developed system is a small, lightweight, simple structure with low electrical consumption, a maximum of 35 stimulation channels and various visual and auditory stimulation combinations without delay time, the previous systematic problem is corrected in this study. The system was designed to stimulate any part of the body including the fingers. Since the developed tactile stimulator used E-Prime software, which is widely used in the study of visual and auditory senses, the stimulator is expected to be highly practical due to a diverse combination of stimuli, such as tactile–visual, tactile–auditory, visual–auditory and tactile–visual–auditory stimulation.     

The Effects of Aging on Information-Processing Channels in the Sense of Touch: I. Absolute Sensitivity

Thresholds for detecting vibrotactile signals of variable frequency applied to the thenar eminence of the hand by small and large contactors were measured in subjects ranging in age from 10 to 89 years. Thresholds were found to increase as a function of age, but the rate of increase was greater after than before the age of 65 years. The rate of loss of vibrotactile sensitivity was substantially greater in the P channel (mediated by Pacinian corpuscles) than in the NP I channel (mediated by rapidly adapting fibers), the NP II channel (mediated by slowly adapting type II fibers), or the NP HI channel (mediated by slowly adapting type I fibers). Women were frequently found to have greater sensitivity than men.     

Measurement of Prostaglandins in the Cerebrospinal Fluid in Cat, Dog, and Man

Prostaglandins are involved in the modulation of various central functions (neurotransmitters and hypothalamic hormone release, thermoregulation, cerebro-vascular tone) and their levels increase in pathological situations [subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), stroke, convulsive disorders, etc.]. This study, using sensitive and specific antibodies, examined levels of four eicosanoids, Prostaglandins E₂ and F_2α(PGE₂, PGF_2α); and the metabolites of PGI₂, 6-keto-prostaglandin F_1α (6-keto-PGF1_α) and of thromboxane A₂, thromboxane B₂ (TxB₂), in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) obtained atraumatically from three species (human, canine, and feline). An assessment of the methodologic procedures (extraction and radioimmunoassay) was carried out. Human lumbar cerebrospinal fluid was shown to contain PGF_2α (15–44 pg/ml), 6-keto-PGF_1α (undetectable to 39 pg/ml), and TxB₂ (un-detectable to 28 pg/ml), whereas PGE₂ was undetectable (>18 pg) in all cases. In both animals species the eico-sanoid concentrations were 3-to 30-fold higher than humans for every prostaglandin examined. Although the prostaglandin profile for a given species remained constant (cat, PGE₂:6-keto-PGF_1α:TxB₂:PGF_2α; dog, TxB₂:PGE₂:6-keto-PGF_1α:PGF_2α), the absolute levels were found to be lower in the pentobarbital-anesthetized animals than in conscious cats. The correspondence of the prostaglandin profiles found in cerebrospinal fluid with the profiles reported in the literature in brain homogenates for the same species supports the hypothesis that cerebrospinal fluid levels of prostaglandins reflect the relative rates of synthesis in neural tissue.     

Acoustic Signals of a Dog and Cat Induce Hemodynamic Responses within the Human Brain

The objective of this study was to evaluate the response of the human frontal cortex when listening to cat meows and dog barks, accompanied with a non-verbal pictorial using an affective rating system that assesses the dimensions of valence and arousal. Each participant (24 students; 12 females and 12 males) sat individually in the middle of a room and listened to the sounds (cat meows, dog barks, and the sound of a train) through ceiling-mounted speakers with a near infrared spectroscopic (NIRS) device. Participants had significantly higher oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) levels during the exposure to meows (p < 0.05) and barks (p < 0.01) compared with the train sound. A significant correlation was observed between the dimensions of valence and oxy-Hb activation when the participants listened to cat meows (r = 0.53, p < 0.017; Bonferroni correction). In conclusion, we found that the acoustic signals of companion animals lead to frontal cortex responses in humans, suggesting that their signals have an important function related to their long coexistence with people.     

The Effects of Aging on Information-Processing Channels in the Sense of Touch: III. Differential Sensitivity to Changes in Stimulus Intensity

Detection thresholds and difference limens were measured for 16 subjects ranging from 19 to 91 years of age. The stimuli were 250-Hz bursts of vibration applied through a 3.0-cm² contactor to the thenar eminence of the right hand. Detection thresholds were higher in older than in younger subjects, as were the absolute values of difference limens. When the difference limen was expressed in relative terms as the proportion by which two stimuli had to differ in amplitude to be discriminated (δA/A), discriminative capacities were unaffected by aging except for stimuli slightly above the detection threshold, in which case the difference limens of older subjects were significantly higher than those of younger subjects. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that elevations in the detection thresholds of older subjects are the results of reduced afferent input to central brain centers that, with regard to their capacity to detect the presence of threshold-level stimuli and to discriminate differences among suprathreshold stimuli, are relatively unaffected by aging.     

A Longitudinal Study of Decision Making in the Process of Acquiring a Dog

To prevent potential problems in the relationship between people and their dogs, it is important to engage in a thoughtful decision-making process with regard to acquiring a dog. To map the most important elements in the decision-making process, a social cognitive model was applied using seven psychological constructs: perceived advantages of having a dog; perceived disadvantages; the social norm; self-efficacy; optimism; expected commitment; and the intention to acquire a dog. People who were planning to acquire a dog within one year were asked to fill in an online questionnaire and another one 14 months later. The social cognitive constructs were operationalized in the baseline questionnaire, and in the follow-up participants were asked to report whether they had actually acquired a dog during the 14-month interval. The sample (n?=?588) largely consisted of females (88%) and those who had a high level of education (64%). The mean age of the participants was 40.9 years. The data showed significant relations among the decision-making variables, and significant differences between demographic variables related to these. In univariate longitudinal analyses, several social cognitive variables significantly predicted acquiring a dog in the 14-month period. When intention to acquire a dog was entered into the multivariate model, it remained the only predictor (OR = 2.16, p?<?0.001); the model explained 33% of the variance in acquiring a dog. It was possible to assess the main constructs that play a role in decision making regarding acquiring a dog: Most baseline measures were related to actual later behavior, also when taking into account all changes in other internal and external factors that may have taken place. Insight into the decision-making process makes it possible to intervene in it for the good of people, dogs, and their relationships.     

Biopsychosocial Factors and Cognitive Function in Cat Ownership and Attachment in Community-dwelling Older Adults

ABSTRACT

Few studies consider the health benefits of pet ownership from a biopsychosocial perspective, and a paucity of studies investigate cat ownership. The current study was designed to determine if psychosocial factors (stress, loneliness, and depression), biological levels of stress and inflammation (salivary cortisol, interleukin-1β, and C-reactive protein [CRP]), and cognitive function were associated with companion cat ownership/attachment in community-dwelling older adults. Community-dwelling older adults (n = 96, mean age = 76.6 years) who either owned a cat and no dog (n = 41) or owned neither a cat nor a dog (n = 55) completed questionnaires (Perceived Stress Scale, Revised–UCLA Loneliness Scale, Geriatric Depression Scale-Short Form, Montreal Cognitive Assessment, and Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale) and provided saliva specimens which were assayed for stress and inflammatory biomarkers. The majority of participants screened positive for mild cognitive impairment, reported low levels of stress, loneliness, and depression, and the biomarkers reflected fairly low levels of stress and inflammation. Binary logistic regression analysis revealed that psychosocial factors, salivary biomarkers, and cognitive function were not significantly associated with cat ownership. Age was the only significant predictor of cat ownership (OR = 0.92, p < 0.01) with the odds of cat ownership decreasing by 8.3% per year of advancing age. On average, cat owners were “somewhat attached” to their cats; however, 26% were “strongly attached” to their cats. Correlation analyses revealed the level of attachment to cats was not associated with study outcomes. These results show that cat ownership declined with each advancing year, which lessens the opportunity for older adults to form attachment bonds. The level of pet attachment supports the consideration of cats as a source of an attachment relationship for older adults, including those with cognitive impairment.     

The relationship between the stockperson's personality and attitudes and the productivity of dairy cows

This study investigated the relationships amongst personality traits and attitudes of 311 dairy stockpeople and the milk yield they obtained. A questionnaire pack consisting of a big-five measure of personality (which includes the traits of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and intellect), a four-factor attitude questionnaire and associated demographic and production questions was posted out to Northern Ireland dairy farmers. Pearson correlations were used to assess the relationship between personality and attitudes and partial correlations were calculated between milk yield and these psychometric measures. The personality traits of agreeableness and conscientiousness were most strongly correlated to positive attitudes towards working with dairy cows. None of the stockpeople's personality traits were significantly correlated with the milk yield they obtained. Three of the attitude scales, however, were significantly correlated with milk yield; milk yield was related to higher levels of empathy and job satisfaction and lower levels of negative beliefs. These findings, along with previous research, suggest stockperson attitudes may be important in relation to dairy cow welfare and production.     

The Relationship between Empathy,Perception of Pain and Attitudes toward Pets among Norwegian Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

Anthropomorphism, attachment level, and belief in animal mind, as well as owners' level of empathy and attitudes toward their pets, are some of the factors that affect human–animal interactions. Owners' ability to identify painful conditions in their pets may have important consequences for the welfare of these animals. In addition to characterizing the typical Norwegian dog owner, the aim of this work was to study the relationship between empathy, attitudes, and perceived animal pain. A sample of 3,413 dog owners in Norway received an internet-based questionnaire (QuestBack?), to which1896 responded. The questionnaire included four parts: demographics, the Pet Attitude Scale (PAS), the Animal Empathy Scale (AES), and the Pain Assessment Instrument (PAI). For the PAI, participants were presented with 17 photos, showing dogs experiencing painful situations of varying degrees, and were asked to rate the level of pain they believed each animal was enduring, using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Results showed that Norwegian dog owners had very high levels of animal-directed empathy and equally high levels of positive attitudes toward pets. There were differences based on gender, childhood pet keeping, income and education. Differences were also found rooted in owners' use of their dog, whether kept for companionship or hunting, as well as household size, an indication of human social relations. A strong, positive correlation (r = 0.58) was found between animal-directed empathy and positive attitudes toward pets. Empathy was found to be the best predictor of how people rated pain in dogs. The correlations were, however, moderate, indicating that other processes are also involved when observing animals in pain.     

The Effects of a Therapy Dog on the Blood Pressure and Heart Rate of Older Residents in a Nursing Home

The aim of the present project was to investigate whether repeated visits by a therapy dog to nursing homes might affect the older residents’ systolic blood pressure and heart rate. A secondary aim was to investigate and compare effects (differences in responses) in older people with high and normal systolic blood pressure. The project consisted of two consecutive studies; the dog study (two researchers and a therapy dog with a handler visited the residents at three nursing homes, n = 13), and the control study (the two researchers alone visited the residents at three different nursing homes, n = 13). The studies were divided into three periods; period 1 (weeks 1–2), period 2 (weeks 3–4), and period 3 (weeks 5–6) and included two visits per week. The dog and her handler visited during periods 2 and 3 in the dog study. Participants’ heart rate and blood pressure were measured at 0 and 20 minutes at each visit. The data were analyzed using Friedman's two- way analysis of Variance by Rank with post-hoc analysis using Wilcoxon signed-rank tests with a Bonferroni correction, and also with the Mann-Whitney U test for independent samples. In the dog study, participants’ heart rate decreased significantly (p = 0.006) from period 1 to period 3. Participants with an initial systolic blood pressure ≥ 130 mmHg had a significant decrease in both systolic blood pressure (p = 0.009) and heart rate (p = 0.009). In the control study, participants’ heart rate and systolic blood pressure did not change significantly. The participants in the dog study had a significantly lower systolic blood pressure during period 3 (p = 0.016) compared with those in the control study. In conclusion, repeated visits by a therapy dog–handler team decreased the older adults’ heart rate, and for those with high initial systolic blood pressure, blood pressure also decreased. In addition, systolic blood pressure decreased significantly in the dog group when compared with the control group.     

An Evaluation of the Role the Internet Site Petfinder Plays in Cat Adoptions

To better understand factors contributing to cat adoptions, this study was used to explore a possible association between an adoptable cat's popularity on Petfinder and the cat's length of availability for adoption at a managed-intake nonhuman animal shelter. This study was also used to examine factors associated with a cat's popularity on Petfinder and the percentage of adopters who visited Petfinder before making adoption decisions. One third of adopters surveyed visited Petfinder before adopting, and half of those had viewed their adopted cats' Petfinder profiles. The number of clicks per day that cats received on the site was negatively correlated with their length of availability. Age at adoption was positively correlated with length of availability and negatively correlated with number of clicks per day. Coat color was a strong predictor of number of clicks per day and length of availability. The only variable within the photographer's control significantly associated with number of clicks per day was whether the photos included toys. Although cats' physical characteristics are strong predictors of their popularity, strategic use of toys in cats' photographs may promote adoptions of cats who are typically overlooked.     

Effects of a Dog-training Intervention on At-risk Youth

In the past few decades, interventions that involve animals have gained support among therapists, as they encourage verbal and non-verbal expressions of emotions. Our aim was to examine the impact of a dog-training intervention on the empathic skills of at-risk youth, compared with an intervention using empowerment groups. We hypothesized that participants in the dog-training group would report improved empathic abilities, compared with those in the comparison group. A prospective study was conducted, with a final sample of 55 at-risk youth: 30 in the dog-training group and 25 in the empowerment-based group (n = 25). Empathic skills were measured using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, which consists of four subscales: fantasy abilities, perspective taking, empathic concern, and personal distress. We found a significant improvement in the empathic concern subscale only among participants in the dog-training group (F_(1,53) = 16.6, p < 0.01). This is discussed, along with limitations of the research and possible avenues for future research.     

Carnivores,Colonization, and Conflict: A Qualitative Case Study on the Intersectional Persecution of Predators and People in Namibia

Nonhuman carnivores have historically been demonized, lethally controlled, and extirpated throughout many parts of the world—indeed, they bear the brunt of this in some places still today. To understand why this is still occurring, it is important to appreciate the historical events that have shaped and led to this situation. We use a qualitative case study in Namibia that draws on an archival review and eight months of ethnography to describe the widespread control of nonhuman carnivores in the country, from the 1800s to the present day. Calling upon Val Plumwood’s eco-feminist typology of domination of the “Other,” and integrating it with current advances in inter- sectional theory, we explain the apparent parallels in this process of domi- nation of Namibian nonhuman predators alongside its Indigenous peoples by European settlers. We discuss the process of colonization of predators and people, highlighting how perceived power differentials provided an ideal situation to dominate these presumed “Others.” We conclude with a number of recommendations that could begin to reconcile conflicts between people and predators, and between different groups of people.