There for You: Attending Pet Euthanasia and Whether this Relates to Complicated Grief and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

ABSTRACT

Recognizing the deep relationship between grief and the loss of a companion animal, veterinarians and mental health practitioners often find themselves consoling pet owners both prior to and in the aftermath of pet euthanasia. Yet how does euthanasia influence this bereavement process? To explore this we examined, using a survey, the correlations between pet euthanasia, Complicated Grief (CG), and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) amongst a diverse range of pet owners from the state of Hawaii. Participants (n = 236) completed a 37-item questionnaire, the Inventory of Complicated Grief Revised Short Form (ICG-R-SF), and the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Of the participants, 3.4% and 4.7% met the criteria for CG and PTSD, respectively. This paper explores and subdivides respondents into those who attended their companion animal’s euthanasia and those who did not. Our results indicate that physically attending a companion animal’s euthanasia is not correlated with CG or PTSD. As the experience of pet loss itself may be more indicative of psychological distress than whether or not the owner was present at the moment of euthanasia, veterinary staff need not dissuade pet owners from sharing their pet’s final moments.     

Pet Loss and Grief: Identifying At-risk Pet Owners during the Euthanasia Process

Pet owners often experience complex and profound grief reactions when their animals are euthanized. Veterinary staff are increasingly being called upon to be aware of and to respond to the grief reactions of pet owners at this critical time. The objectives of this study were to identify pet owners who are most at risk of grief and to suggest veterinary interventions during the euthanasia process. A convenience sample of 409 pet owners whose animals had been euthanized in the past year took part in a survey. Variables of interest included pet and pet-owner demographics, pet-death characteristics, attachment to pet, and bereavement reactions. Stepwise multiple regression analyses were conducted to identify factors related to the three grief reaction subtypes: sorrow, anger, and guilt. Results indicated that attachment to pets was a strong predictor of feelings of grief/sorrow (p < 0.001) and anger (p < 0.001). Sudden death was also related to feelings of anger (p < 0.05). Cancer diagnosis was negatively related to feelings of anger (p < 0.05) and guilt (p < 0.01). The findings from this study provide additional insight into the complexity of grief following pet euthanasia. For veterinary staff, anticipating the needs of pet owners and supporting them through the grief process is an integral role. Understanding which pet owners are at greatest risk of grief is an important initial step, followed by empathic communications, sensitive interactions, and the provision of grief support.     

Pet Loss: Understanding Disenfranchised Grief,Memorial Use,and Posttraumatic Growth

The growing body of literature exploring pet loss suggests that many bereaved pet owners experience disenfranchised grief. Disenfranchised grief occurs when a loss is unacknowledged and the bereaved are unable to express their grief. When grief is considered illegitimate, the bereaved may experience a variety of adverse psychological outcomes, including increased distress and reduced quality of life. Additionally, when grief is inhibited, the individual may be less likely to experience positive changes such as posttraumatic growth. Few studies have considered the relationship between disenfranchisement and posttraumatic growth following the loss of a companion animal. This study investigated the relationship between disenfranchised grief, memorialization, and posttraumatic growth in bereaved pet owners. Grief severity was assessed as a moderator. Using an online survey, respondents (n?=?133) completed standardized measures, including the Pet Bereavement Questionnaire, the Loss of Social Support subscale from the Grief Experience Questionnaire, and the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory-Short Form (PTGI-SF). As hypothesized, there was a significant interaction between disenfranchised grief, grief severity, and posttraumatic growth, suggesting that disenfranchised grief inhibits posttraumatic growth when grief severity is high. Contrary to the hypothesis, there was no relationship between memorial quantity or type and posttraumatic growth. Overall, this study shows that disenfranchised grief can inhibit posttraumatic growth following the loss of a pet, highlighting the complicated relationship between posttraumatic growth, grief intensity, and disenfranchised grief.     

Attitudes and Motivations of Owners Who Enroll Pets in Pet Life-Care Centers

The purpose of this study was to examine the characteristics, motivations, and expectations of humans who enroll their dogs, cats, and other pets into pet life-care centers. Pet life-care centers are groups or institutions that provide a permanent home for pets in the event of the owner’s illness, inability to care for their pet, or death. The long-term pet care industry has grown in the quality and type of care available to pet owners and is a classic example of the human–animal bond in action. This bond is well-documented in the literature, with most research focusing on physical, emotional, and mental health benefits to the pet owner. Few studies have examined how the human–animal bond affects the animal, and little is known about the motives and expectations of owners who enroll their pet in a life-care center. We conducted a study using a mail questionnaire sent to 163 current clients of a pet life-care center in Texas, USA. Of 101 respondents, whose ages ranged from 30 to over 70, most were female, married, and college-educated. Respondents strongly endorsed a variety of reasons for enrolling their pet in the center, with quality of veterinary care and satisfaction of their pet’s basic needs being the most highly rated. Coding of open-ended responses was consistent with these ratings and identified having no other options as another frequently endorsed reason. The open-ended responses also indicated that respondents expected that their pet would enjoy extensive social interaction, receive high-quality medical attention, and be treated like they were at home. Respondents who had previously visited the center were more willing to adopt a pet in the future than those who had not visited the center. With the dramatic growth of pet life-care centers in the United States and lack of existing literature, further studies in this area are advised.     

Development of the Pet Bereavement Questionnaire

Abstract

The death of a pet can be a significant stressor for some people and is a known risk factor for depression. The Pet Bereavement Questionnaire (PBQ) was developed to fill the need for a brief, acceptable, well-validated instrument for use in studies of the psychological impact of losing a pet. Initial results suggest that the PBQ has good internal reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.87), as well as good construct validity, with three distinct factors reflecting grief, anger and guilt. Grief was found to correlate strongly with pet attachment. The anger and guilt scales, however, correlated with depressive symptoms. The PBQ discriminated between individuals seeking support after pet loss (who would be expected to show higher levels of bereavement) and those who simply acknowledge the recent loss of a pet. We suggest that future research into pet bereavement use this new questionnaire so that the results of different studies can be compared, normative scores can be developed and researchers in this area can use a single instrument with established construct validity. In particular, we hope the PBQ will be used in treatment outcome research to identify high-risk individuals and test the effectiveness of both existing and novel interventions. Moreover, the PBQ could also be used in clinical settings, such as tertiary care veterinary hospitals, to identify pet owners in need of clinical support services.     

Pet Loss and Representations of Death,Attachment, Depression,and Euthanasia

Studies that have examined pet loss hypothesize that attachment, representations of death, and the belief in an afterlife for animals may influence owners’ bereavement and depressive outcomes. The following instruments were administered to 159 Italian participants recruited through snowball sampling: the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS), the Pet Bereavement Questionnaire (PBQ), the Testoni Death Representation Scale (TDRS), and Beck’s Depression Inventory II (BDI-II). Questions concerning pet euthanasia-related issues and the relationship between owners and veterinarians were also submitted to the participants. A path model was conducted, showing that the representation of death and the attachment to a pet had a direct effect on pet grief, which in turn had a direct effect on depression. The results show a positive correlation between the LAPS and PBQ factors, particularly with the PBQ factor Grief. The LAPS factors positively correlated with the TDRS representation of Death as a Passage and negatively correlated with the TDRS representation of Death as Annihilation. The LAPS People Substituting factor positively correlated with the total score and the Cognitive-Affective factor of the BDI-II. The PBQ factors positively correlated with the BDI-II, whereas only the TDRS Death as Annihilation factor positively correlated with the BDI-II. Belief in a transcendent dimension was associated with higher scores on the PBQ Guilt factor and the TDRS factors of Death as a Passage and Death as Change, whereas these beliefs were associated with lower scores on the TDRS factor Death as Annihilation.

The results indicated that the sensitivity of the veterinarian and a veterinarian who helps owners make conscious and informed decisions for their pet and choose the right time to perform euthanasia are important variables in the management of pet loss. However, these factors are not sufficient and psychological support should be improved to help owners better cope with grief.     

The Pet Factor - Companion Animals as a Conduit for Getting to Know People,Friendship Formation and Social Support

Background

While companion animals have been previously identified as a direct source of companionship and support to their owners, their role as a catalyst for friendship formation or social support networks among humans has received little attention. This study investigated the indirect role of pets as facilitators for three dimensions of social relatedness; getting to know people, friendship formation and social support networks.

Methods

A telephone survey of randomly selected residents in four cities, one in Australia (Perth; n = 704) and three in the U.S. (San Diego, n = 690; Portland, n = 634; Nashville, n = 664) was conducted. All participants were asked about getting to know people within their neighborhood. Pet owners were asked additional questions about the type/s of pet/s they owned, whether they had formed friendships as a result of their pet, and if they had received any of four different types of social support from the people they met through their pet.

Results

Pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners (OR 1.61; 95%CI: 1.30, 1.99). When analyzed by site, this relationship was significant for Perth, San Diego and Nashville. Among pet owners, dog owners in the three U.S. cities (but not Perth) were significantly more likely than owners of other types of pets to regard people whom they met through their pet as a friend (OR 2.59; 95%CI: 1.94, 3.46). Around 40% of pet owners reported receiving one or more types of social support (i.e. emotional, informational, appraisal, instrumental) via people they met through their pet.

Conclusion

This research suggests companion animals can be a catalyst for several dimensions of human social relationships in neighborhood settings, ranging from incidental social interaction and getting to know people, through to formation of new friendships. For many pet owners, their pets also facilitated relationships from which they derived tangible forms of social support, both of a practical and emotionally supportive nature. Given growing evidence for social isolation as a risk factor for mental health, and, conversely, friendships and social support as protective factors for individual and community well-being, pets may be an important factor in developing healthy neighborhoods.     

Associations between Stress and Quality of Life: Differences between Owners Keeping a Living Dog or Losing a Dog by Euthanasia

Objectives

The loss of a pet may be stressful to the owner. The main objectives of this study were to compare the levels of stress and to explore the correlates of QOL of healthy adults who currently own or who have just lost their dog.

Methods

The study sample contained 110 current, and 103 bereaved dog owners, all females, who lost their dogs due to euthanasia. QOL was assessed with the WHOQOL-BREF questionnaire and divided into four major domains–Physical, Psychological, Relationship, and Environmental. Demographic variables, stress, health behaviors, and social support from family, friends, and significant other were included in multivariate analysis.

Results

Stress levels were significantly higher in bereaved owners. QOL in three of the four domains (Physical, Psychological, and Relationship) of current owners were significantly better than among bereaved owners. Stress was significantly associated with these three domains of QOL. Quality of life was found to be positively associated with social support. Age was related directly only to current owners’ QOL.

Conclusions

The results suggest that a loss of a dog is associated with stress for the bereaved owner and reduced physical, psychological, and relationship QOL. Lack of social support in the case of death of a companion animal has a strong effect on owners’ grief reactions.     

What's in it for the companion animal? Pet attachment and college students' behaviors toward pets

Research on the human-nonhuman animal bond has focused primarily on its advantages to the human. The purpose of this study is to investigate behaviors of caregivers (owners) of companion animals (pets) and to examine the relationship between such behaviors and scores on a pet attachment scale. Participants were 501 largely nontraditional (older, married, employed full-time) college students living with a pet dog or cat. The study categorized owner behaviors as essential, standard, enriched, or luxury care. Almost all participants reported engaging in essential care behaviors, with numbers declining from category to category. Pet attachment scores appeared related to standard and enriched care behaviors but not to essential care. Too few participants reported doing luxury care behaviors to link them to attachment. The results suggest that even pet owners reporting low attachment provide beneficial care and attention to their pets and that pet attachment may be of limited use when looking at the benefit of the human-animal bond to the companion animal.     

Psychological Mechanisms Predicting Wellbeing in Pet Owners: Rogers’ Core Conditions versus Bowlby’s Attachment

While pet ownership may confer physical and psychological health benefits, existing research presents inconsistent findings, and the psychological mechanisms through which health benefits might be conferred are unknown. Exploring human–pet relationships from the perspectives of Bowlby’s attachment theory, namely “attachment-related anxiety” and “attachment-related avoidance,” and Rogers’ core conditions including “unconditional positive regard” and “empathy” may highlight the psychological mechanisms involved. This study compared quality of life (QOL) and psychopathology in pet owners with those without pets. In the pet owners, we additionally assessed pet attachment, and perceived empathy, unconditionality, and congruence in the human–pet relationships. We then compared the relative value of Bowlby’s attachment versus Rogers’ core conditions in human– pet relationships as predictors of wellbeing in pet owners. Overall, pet owners and non-pet owners did not significantly differ in terms of QOL or psychopathology. However, in pet owners, secure pet attachments were associated with lower psychological distress and psychopathology, and those perceiving higher levels of Rogers’ core conditions from their pets had higher QOL. Bowlby’s pet attachment insecurity predicted psychological distress and psychopathology, while Rogers’ total core conditions in pets were significantly predictive of QOL of owners. Differences in wellbeing may not be reliably discernable between pet owners and non-pet owners, as wellbeing is related not to pet ownership alone but to qualities of individual human–pet relationships. The results provide new information about psychological mechanisms through which human–pet interactions are conferred, and support for the applicability of both Bowlby’s and Rogers’ concepts.     

Human Grief Resulting from the Death of a Pet

Abstract

This study investigated antecedents of the human grief response which was associated with the death of a pet cat or dog. The sample included 207 voluntary subjects who experienced this type of loss within a one-year time period prior to participating in the study. Data for the predictor variables were obtained from two validated instruments and a questionnaire developed by the author. Data for grief outcome were obtained from another validated instrument on three clinical and three validity scales. The results indicated that level of attachment to the deceased pet, perceived understanding from others and other stressful events combined to have significant predictive ability in grief outcome. Other analyses indicated qualitative differences in grief outcome according to gender of owner and the presence of children and/or more than one other adult in the household. No significant difference was found between single and multiple pet ownership in grief outcome.     

Preferences for Infant Facial Features in Pet Dogs and Cats

A set of infant features (large forehead, large and low‐lying eyes, and bulging cheeks), were described in classical ethology as social releasers, simple stimuli that evoke a stereotyped response, in this case nurturing. We assessed the attractiveness of such features in the faces of dogs or cats (adults and young) or teddy bears or human infants, and also related these preferences to the degree of attachment to a pet. Overall, faces with the infant features were rated as more attractive than those without. Human infant faces were no more attractive than those of kittens or puppies. Pet faces were rated as more attractive by pet owners than non‐pet owners, regardless of whether the faces had infant features. A preference was also found for infant features in teddy bear faces. Women showed higher ratings than men for pets with infant features, but not for human infants or pets without infant features. Parents found human infants’ faces more attractive than did non‐parents, but there were no differences for other faces with infant features. Preferences were to some extent specific to the participant’s preferred pet species. Owners who were more strongly attached to their pets showed stronger preferences for photographs with infant features. The findings are discussed in terms of the concept of social releaser, and its part in the development of attachment to a pet species.     

An Examination of Adult Women’s Sleep Quality and Sleep Routines in Relation to Pet Ownership and Bedsharing

ABSTRACT

People in many parts of the world commonly share their beds not only with human partners but also with dogs and cats. Self-report and actigraphy data have shown that sleeping with an adult human partner has both positive and negative impacts on human sleep, but there has been little exploration of the impacts that pets have on human sleep quality. We collected survey data online from 962 adult women living in the United States to investigate relationships between pet ownership and human sleep. Fifty-five percent of participants shared their bed with at least one dog and 31% with at least one cat. In addition, 57% of participants shared their bed with a human partner. Our findings did not show a strong relationship between pet ownership status or bedsharing conditions and sleep quality as assessed by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), although according to this measure, a high percentage of study participants did experience sleep quality deficits. It is possible that pet ownership contributed to the high global PSQI scores we observed, especially since all but 7% of participants resided with dogs and/or cats. Other measures included in this study indicate that dogs and cats, and where they sleep, may indeed affect sleep habits and perceptions of sleep quality. Dog owners had earlier bedtimes and wake times than individuals who had cats but no dogs. Compared with human bed partners, dogs who slept in the owner’s bed were perceived to disturb sleep less and were associated with stronger feelings of comfort and security. Conversely, cats who slept in their owner’s bed were reported to be equally as disruptive as human partners, and were associated with weaker feelings of comfort and security than both human and dog bed partners. Follow-up research is necessary to determine if pet owners’ perceptions of pets’ impacts on their sleep align with objective measures of sleep quality.     

Social Dimensions of the Human–Avian Bond: Parrots and Their Persons

Though birds are among the most popular companion animals in the United States, little scholarly research has focused on the human– companion parrot relationship. This study uses an ethnographic approach and qualitative analysis to examine the parrot–pet owner relationship. Two and onehalf weeks of ethnographic fieldwork were carried out in a veterinary clinic specializing in avian and exotic medicine. These observations complement the results of quantitative data and qualitative analysis of texts from questionnaires completed by 100 parrot owners outside the clinic. Both textual analysis and observations in the veterinary clinic revealed some interesting insights into the social dimensions of the human–companion parrot relationship, which was rated superior to that of cats and dogs by some bird owners. Various patterns of human–avian interactions emerged from the data, including childhood experience with birds, affection and physical contact with birds, birds as family members and the nature of the human–parrot bond, infantilization (delayed weaning and parrot as child surrogate), anthropomorphism (celebration of holidays, diet, death and spirituality, and misinterpretation of bird behavior), intersubjectivity and cognition, and anthropocentrism (bird as object). Misinterpretation of bird behavior and failure to recognize the unique physiological and social needs of their species may lead to impaired welfare. On the other hand, according the bird a social status as cherished family member, may enhance their welfare. In addition, other factors are considered that may enhance or detract from the welfare of companion parrots. In a discussion of hypotheses regarding the human–pet bond, it is concluded that the data presented by this study best support the social support hypothesis.     

The Association of Pet Ownership and Attachment with Perceived Stress among Chinese Adults

Pet ownership is associated with both positive and negative emotions. Given that not everyone responds to pet care in a stressful way, perceptions of companion animals may play a role in how owners respond to them. In this study, we explored the relationship between pet ownership and perceived stress among Chinese pet owners. We also examined the effect of care practices and perceptions of pets on perceived stress. A total of 288 Hong Kong Chinese, adult pet owners, aged 18 to 70 years, were recruited. Participants were surveyed using a self-administered questionnaire covering demographics, pet ownership background, pet attachment, and perceived stress. Regression analyses were performed to examine pet attachment in different demographic groups and its relationship with perceived stress. Moderation and mediation analyses were performed to elucidate their underlying mechanisms. After adjusting for demographics and pet ownership background, greater attachment to a pet was associated with lower stress in owners. The perception of pets as family members minimized the stressful burden of pet care. More time spent caring for a pet increased attachment to that animal which in turn reduced stress in owners. The findings suggest attachment to companion animals and the perception of them as family members can help manage and reduce stress in owners.     

The Emotional Lives of Companion Animals: Attachment and Subjective Claims by Owners of Cats and Dogs

There is a growing body of scientific evidence supporting the existence of emotions in nonhuman animals. Companion-animal owners show a strong connection and attachment to their animals and readily assign emotions to them. In this paper we present information on how the attachment level of companion-animal owners correlates with their attribution of emotions to their companion cat or dog and their attribution of mirrored emotions. The results of an online questionnaire, completed by 1,023 Dutch-speaking cat and/or dog owners (mainly in the Netherlands and Belgium), suggest that owners attribute several emotions to their pets. Respondents attributed all posited basic (anger, joy [happiness], fear, surprise, disgust, and sadness) and complex (shame, jealousy, disappointment, and compassion) emotions to their companion animals, with a general trend toward basic emotions (with the exception of sadness) being more commonly attributed than complex emotions. All pet owners showed strong attachment to their companion animal(s), with the degree of attachment (of both cat and dog owners) varying significantly with education level and gender. Owners who ascribed human characteristics to their dog or cat also scored higher on the Pet Bonding Scale (PBS). Finally, owners who found it pleasant to pet their dog or cat had a higher average PBS score than those who did not like to do so. The relationship between owners’ attributions of mirrored emotions and the degree of attachment to dogs was significant for all emotions, whilst for cats this relationship was significant only for joy, sadness, surprise, shame, disappointment, and compassion.     

A Survey of Pet-and Non-Pet-Owning Swedish Adolescents: Demographic Differences and Health Issues

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence of pet ownership in adolescents in Sweden and establish whether any gender, age or health-related differences exist between those who own pets and those who do not. In addition, the study aimed to explore the relationships between species of pet, age, gender, and other socio-demographic variables and the perceived importance of pets. Three age groups (13–14 years-old, 15–16 years-old, and 17–18 years-old) of adolescents, resident in a single county in Sweden, were surveyed using the questionnaire “Liv och Hälsa Ung” (“Youth Life and Health”). A total of 8,709 respondents were included in the analysis (pet owners = 5,793; non-pet owners = 2,916). Associations between importance of the pet and demographic variables and general self-rated health were investigated using logistic regression analysis. The prevalence of pet owners in the sample was 65%, and the most common types of pets were, in descending order of popularity, cats, dogs, rodents, fish/reptiles, and horses. Most of the pet owners said their pets were very or quite important to them, for the three age groups (73.1–88.6%). In general, pets were more important for the female respondents. Importance was dependent on type of pet, with male and female dog owners and female horse owners rating their pets as more important than the owners of other species of pet. Respondents who did not own a pet were more physically active than their pet- owning peers. Pet owners with the best self-rated health also attributed the greatest importance to their pet. However, adolescents with pets reported more psychological problems and somatic health aspects than those who did not own pets. This finding calls for further studies to be conducted, with designs allowing causal conclusions to be drawn.