Comic woman,victim woman: Pushing gender and genre boundaries in popular Hindi Cinema

“Women's film” in Hollywood is associated both with the genre of melodrama, the “weepie”, and with female spectatorship. In the Indian context of popular Hindi cinema, first, genre analysis itself is a questionable line of inquiry since several genres, the melodrama, musical, gangster, or mystery, combine in a single film, known locally as the masala (spicy) film; and second, films are scarcely divided by a gendered viewership. Yet I identify “women's films” as a distinct category in Hindi cinema, emerging around the ‘70s. These women's films typically center on female protagonists, dramatize their victimization and vindication; by the ‘80s under a range of influences these films mutated into rape‐revenge narratives.

However, another strain emerged within the ‘70s’ “women's film,” which drew on cinema's rich visual iconographic tradition of the sight gag, promulgating the comedic/tomboy heroine figure. It favored laughing and mocking patriarchal structures rather than surrendering to them in tears. Focusing on Ramesh Sippy's Sita aur Gita [1972] emblematic of this trend I explore theoretical concerns about associating genres with gender. In keeping with recent poststructuralist theories about gender and media ‘consumption I show how the film destabilized clear‐cut gender identification and stood for a promising trend that was sadly undercut. Thus, while genre might still be a useful analytical tool for Hindi cinema, defining women's film as female‐centered narratives is a viable category as long as we appreciate the instability in gendered viewer identification.     

Rereading the Gods Must be Crazy Films

Studies of Jamie Uys's Gods Must be Crazy films have tended to focus on his pseudo-ethnographic representation of “Bushmen,” from primarily Western perspectives, both anthropological and anti-apartheid. This study examines critically the wider corpus of Uys's feature films, especially those employing “Bushmen” characters, in terms of intertextual relations. The article offers the comments of many San viewers of the films and also conveys the perspective of Gao, the main Ju/'hoansi actor. Finally, the study examines responses from the anthropological community to the films.     

Knowledge as the source of progress: The Marshall family testament to the “Bushmen”

There can be no doubt that the Marshalls’ testament to the “Bushmen,” particularly Elizabeth's The Harmless People and John's The Hunters, played a major role in shaping a public image of humankind's ancient ancestors, especially in the United States. John has said, correctly I believe, that simply by being made known through his family's efforts, Khoisan‐speaking “Bushmen” were brought into the surviving ethnographic record that intrigued a growing number of anthropologists as well as the general public at the beginning of the 1960s. I offer here a preliminary account, based on archival materials, personal letters, etc., of the paradigms and politics that underlay their efforts. I begin with an examination of the extent to which Laurence Marshall must be seen as the inspiration for and the driving force behind the family project, then turn to a consideration of J. O. Brew's role in it. Although this was an ethnoarchaeological project from its beginning, Brew's role has been wholly unappreciated, but cannot be exaggerated; he was, in terminology appropriate to the business nature of the case, Chief Executive Officer to Laurence's Chairman of the Board.

I then turn to the political arena of prehistory—of the living and the dead—that became as important as the arena of its field sites in the 1960s. The Marshalls were thrust into dormancy by academically more powerful rivals who publicly and privately contested their work, but there can be little doubt that their record critically influenced reawakening anthropological interest in hunting societies. Indeed, struggles to be the proprietary heirs to the Marshalls’ “Bushman” legacy ricochetted off the walls of academia from Cambridge (US) to Berkeley to Johannesburg to London to Cambridge (UK).

Finally, I consider the mythic underpinnings of the Marshalls’ work, and conclude that while Elizabeth, in The Harmless People, presents the least occluded view of the Marshalls’ Kalahari, seen as a whole John's “Bushmen” films reveal the expanding of a sensitive consciousness not only to a gestalt of life but to the complexity of filmic (re)presentation and to the limitations of audiences to comprehend what is presented. Collectively, his films constitute important ethnographic documents. They are not, however, dependable documents of the objectified peoples made subjects in the films, but faithful documents of the filmmaker/ethnographer situated in the discourse of a distorted modernity at the time they were made. They permit us to draw inferences about the species of colonial ideology that was pervasive at that time.     

‘To bring out the best that is in their blood’: Race,reform, and civilization in the journal of race development (1910–1919)

The Journal of Race Development [JRD], published out of Clark University in the United States between 1910 and 1919, aimed, in its founder's words, “to present … the important facts which bear upon race progress, and the different theories as to the methods by which developed peoples may most effectively aid the progress of the undeveloped”. Its basic premise was that scientific knowledge could harness racial or civilizational “evolution” and turn it into “development”. This article examines that project, the conceptual apparatus that the JRD's writers and editors brought to bear on it, and how racial ideas informed their conceptions of development and progressive social change through elite scientific and political intervention. Central to this project was an organic notion of “civilization” in which “nature” and “culture” did not so much overlap as flow seamlessly one into the other.     

Civilization,wilderness and secrecy: Making two Nigerian films

This paper draws on fieldwork and filmmaking experiences and explores the interpretive process shared between the object, filmmaker, and audience. Mammy Water: In Search of the Water Spirits in Nigeria [1989] is the result of extensive field research and close collaboration between the local community, the researcher/filmmaker and team. Mammy Water priviledges local views on the subject over the academic discourse taking place elsewhere. This has evoked diverse reactions. Some miss the (Western) analytical level, others engage in the discourse itself, or assume the film's own position. The issue of cultural perspective is carried even further in cinematography. Both films discussed here were made not only in close collaboration with African communities but also photographed by an African cinematographer, Alhaji Yusufu Mohammed. His camera evokes diametrically opposed reactions from African and Western viewers. Where Westerners perceive “distance”, African audiences perceive “closeness”, where Westerners perceive a scene as “staged”, African audiences perceive it as “natural”. This contrast of perception is further highlighted in Owu: Chidi Joins the Okoroshi Secret Society [1991], mostly filmed by Alhaji, but complemented by two video inserts by my daughter, Saskia Jell, who produced additional behind‐the‐scenes footage in Coming to Nigeria.

Reviewers have raised another important topic. Owu points to three different levels of secrecy surrounding the masquerade and initiation into Oguta's Okoroshi society. This in turn raises questions on if and how to represent secrecy and the dichotomy between civilization and wilderness on film.

A discussion of post‐production at the IWF introduces a negative dimension and questions the undue impact of politics, German rigidity, and other impediments.

In conclusion, my films are strongly grounded in long‐term field research, and indebted to the people whose cultures I have researched, as well as to Alhaji Yusufu Mohammed's cinematic representation. Situated between Africa and the Western world, my films contain elements of both African and Western cultures, as they attempt to mediate between them. 1 am looking to the genre of ethnographic film primarily for its effort to create meaning in interpreting and representing cultures, for its position between the cultural worlds, and for its possibilities for transcultural communication. This goal could be served by a plurality of methods, different film styles, and varied authors within the same genre.     

Made in China: The Gods Go East

ABSTRACT

Jamie Uys's The Gods Must be Crazy and its sequel films are icons of South African entertainment, perceived both as hilarious comedy and blatant apartheid propaganda. Three further sequels, made from Hong Kong by Chinese directors, are hardly known in South Africa. These films are particularly interesting from a cultural point of view, as they portray Orientals (and white South Africans) from an Oriental perspective and San Bushmen from a position that is neither Western nor set in an apartheid/post-apartheid South African context. The current context of globalization in which cultures are expressed and negotiated creates an interesting space for the analysis of these “multicultural” films. This article examines these films especially, Crazy Safari, and discusses them in terms of responses from focus groups, one of Taiwanese viewers in Durban, and another of Kenyans in Kenya.     

Renovated: Gender and Cinema in Contemporary Vietnam

This article discusses the changes in Vietnamese cinema from the Socialist to the contemporary period from the viewpoint of gender representation. Under socialist conditions of cultural production, films were made by state-funded studios, with a clear mandate to provide the population with film material appropriate to the state's ideals. Since Doi moi (“Renovation”) in the late 1980s, Vietnam was opened up to market forces and cinematic practices have responded. Issues of gender have come into focus, and films exploring these themes have emerged from both state studios and private investors. Nevertheless conservative social values remain strong, and gender remains an area of dynamic uncertainty.     

Erratum: Darwin,race, and the AAPA 1997 Charles R. Darwin lifetime achievement award,acceptance address. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 104:553–555.

ERRATUM: Philip V. Tobias (1997) Darwin, Race, and the AAPA 1997 Charles R. Darwin lifetime achievement award, acceptance address. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 104:553–555. Page 553, column 2, paragraph 3, line 2: “analyses” should be “analysts.” Page 554, column 1, line 4: Darwin's “great black bug of the Pampas” is Triatoma infestans. Page 554, column 1, paragraph 3, line 2: “century” should read “centenary.” The AJPA apologizes for these and other errors that crept into the printed version of Philip V. Tobias's Acceptance Address. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

On concept formation in systematics

In his “Grundzüge einer Theorie der phylogenetischen Systematik”, Hennig (1950 ) cited three philosophers: the leading empiricist Rudolf Carnap, the conventionalist Hugo Dingler, and the somewhat more obscure empiricist Theodor Ziehen. David Hull characterized Hennig's “Grundzüge” as one long argument against idealistic morphology. It will here be argued that Hennig attacked idealistic morphology (synonymous with “systematic” morphology) for its mode of concept formation. Building on Carnap and Ziehen, who both looked back on Ernst Cassirer, Hennig argued that the “generic”, “thing” or “class” concept of traditional nomothetic science must be replaced with Cassirer's “relation concept.” According to Hennig, such “emancipation” of systematics from the Aristotelian “species” concept would also allow transcendence from the distinction of idiographic from nomothetic sciences, thus preserving the unity of science. However, the establishment of relations in the construction of a system of order presupposes entities that can be, or are, related. Relations presuppose relata, which in modern systematics are best conceptualized (at least at the supraspecific level) not as Aristotelian classes, nor as individuals as was argued by Hennig and Ziehen, but as tokens of natural kinds. © The Willi Hennig Society 2006.     

The rhetoric of Islamophobia: an analysis of the means of persuasion in Hege Storhaug’s writings on Islam and Muslims

Few actors have had a greater impact on the “framing of Muslims” as a social and political “problem” in Norway since 2001 than Hege Storhaug of the government- and corporate billionaire funded civil society organization Human Rights Service (HRS). Using the methodological tools of the “rhetorical branch” of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), and applying the Aristotelian concepts of ethos, logos and pathos, we analyze the bestselling popular title on Islam and Muslims ever published in Norway, namely Storhaug’s self-published 2015 title “Islam – The Eleventh Plague”. We argue that Storhaug’s popular success must be understood in light of her rhetorical appeals to femonationalism, the critique of religion and “Enlightenment” values. We show how she in her writings incites fear of the Muslim “Other” through specific rhetorical devices and a positioning of herself as a defender of the “nation” and the “people” – against national and international “elites”.     

Ethnographic surreality,possession and the unconscious

In the Second Manifesto of Surrealism, issued by André Breton in 1929, surrealism was described as “a total recuperation of our psychic strength by a means of none other than vertiginous descent into ourselves, systematic illumination of the hidden places and progressive darkening of the other places, a perpetual walk in the forbidden zone”. Surrealism sought to represent the unconscious and forbidden zones of the psyche, of the body, of the noumenal world within, which offered access, for surrealists, to energies and intuitions repressed by “civilized” modes of perception. For Jean Rouch, the significance of surrealism, of automatic writing and ciné‐transe, rested in the potential escape they offered from the formal constraints of conventional film and of conventional perception and observation. In his celebration of ciné‐transe, and of the technological apparatus that makes it possible, it is possible to detect his desire for a freeing‐up of the constraints of consciousness—a desire to “write with the body”, to dream, to tap the unexplored power of the unconscious in its overturning of “reality”, of system, and of convention. As a phaneroscopic “wide‐angle lens”, surreality aimed to document the scientifically unexplainable, the immense experiential overload of ritual possession. It attempted to make visible, in the movement between observation and participation and across disjunctive points of view; the crossings‐over into the unconscious world by which possessed Songhay dancers gained access to powers of phaneroscopic perception. By adopting filmic techniques which follow the surrealist practice of creating “verbal and visual collage”, in which randomly‐generated images, emerging out of a trance‐like state (of “automatic writing” or "ciné‐transe"), are juxtaposed in indeterminate and polyphonic relations with each other in an attempt to disturb or destroy patterns of perception which are confining, rationalistic, linear, or restricted to conscious phenomena, Rouch believed he could create powerful representations of the unknowable. This paper relates the phaneroscopic practice of ethnographic surrealism to psychoanalytic models of the unconscious. In a discussion of Rouch's interpretation of the Hauka spirit cult in his film Les Maîtres Fous, the paper argues that the neo‐Freudian paradigm which allowed him to depict the Sohghay's weekend Hauka rites as a parodic reversion to “savagery” (which both reversed the hierarchy of colonizer/colonized and enabled participants to experience a therapeutic release from the traumas of colonization) has been challenged by Lacanian and post‐Lacanian “re‐readings” of Freud that call into question the extent to which the unconscious can be equated with a pre‐linguistic state characterized by disjunctive “primitive” and “instinctive” energies. The surrealist longing for a rupture of the symbolic order of Western rationalism and a return to the “imaginary order” of the unconscious is confounded in the Lacanian conception of the unconscious as a zone inhabited by the “discourse of the Other”. However, the work of Gillès Deleuze and Félix Guanari [1977] provides a means of conceptualizing the unconscious in terms that avoid simplistic binary logic (phenomenon/noumenon; signifier/signified; subject/object; conscious/unconscious; civilization/savagery). The unconscious is not the “unrepresentable” Other of consciousness; it is a schizophrenic phaneron, a signifying “machine”, a transgressive producer of “group fantasy”. Rejecting both Freud's Oedipal model (the unconscious as primal imagery or “ghostly signifieds"), and the Lacanian notion of the unconscious (as a play of “empty signifiers"). Deleuze and Guattari argue that the unconscious cannot be accounted for in terms of the individual child and its entry into language any more than it can be conceived of as the domain of the primitive. On the contrary, the unconscious is constituted as “group fantasy”, as collective public memory which need not be reduced to elemental (Oedipal) signifiers: “all delirium possesses a world‐historical, political and racial content”. The schizophrenic embodies the public nature of unconscious meaning, since schizophrenia is primarily a communication disorder in which an individual never sees himself in terms of a linguistically‐generated “selfhood”, and fails to adopt the “false” identity which is offered to him in the language of the Other. Schizophrenia is characterized by a refusal to treat some meanings as superior to others, to remain within the bounds of a stable identity, or to distinguish between material (noumenal) things and actions and their (phenomenal) meanings. The schizophrenic unconscious treats all experience as signs, registering language in the same way as the body registers physical stimuli. Thus “meanings in the unconscious are simply meanings as workings of the body” [Harland 1987:174–175]. The schizophrenic as a model for the unconscious holds several implications for those interested in representing the experiential power of public rituals, for the public meanings in circulation during such rituals are material and noumenal, and are registered on the bodies of the dancers as they transgress boundaries and pass beyond consciousness. Rouch's surreality attempted to inscribe this unconscious production of public meaning as it was manifested in the movements of the ritual and in the movements of the camera‐body.     

Science‐Based Carbon Targets for the Corporate World: The Ultimate Sustainability Commitment,or a Costly Distraction?

Dr. Alice Stewart conclusively demonstrated, in 1958, that pediatric X‐rays doubled the risk of childhood leukemia. Nevertheless, doctors continued X‐raying mothers‐to‐be until 1980. Margaret Heffernan's (2011) book, Willful Blindness: Why We Ignore the Obvious at Our Peril, documents this and numerous other examples of our skill at ignoring information that points to something we don't want to know. Specifically, on the topic of climate change, Heffernan notes: “[I]n failing to confront the greatest challenge of our age – climate change – all the forces of willful blindness come together, like synchronized swimmers in a spectacular water ballet.” When it comes to corporate sustainability, we're seeing some recent efforts to get past willful blindness. In 2013, we saw examples such as Auden Schendler (co‐author of this piece) and Michael Toffel's (2013) publication in Grist, Corporate Sustainability is Not Sustainable, which itself built upon Professor Robin Craig's (2012) article provocatively entitled “Climate Change Means the Death of Sustainability.” More recently, in Lima, Unilever's Paul Polman said that “.. most CEOs…know that their companies cannot prosper in a world with runaway climate change.” Perhaps, after years of corporate sustainability flag waving, it is no longer possible to ignore the fact that much of what companies classify as “sustainability” is, at best, green fluff that is fundamentally out of touch with the realities of anticipated climate change. Significantly, chief executive officers (CEOs) themselves are questioning the historic focus on corporate sustainability policies and targets. As summarized in the CEO Study on Sustainability, jointly published by the United Nations (UN) Global Compact and Accenture (2013): “Business leaders [now] believe that only with greater government intervention — at global, national and local levels — can sustainability move from sporadic incremental advances to a collective and transformative impact.”     

Camels Out of Place and Time: The Dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) in Australia

The deserts of the Australian outback are ideal territories for dromedary camels, Camelus dromedarius. Dromedaries' flexible adaptations allow them to eat 80% of Australian plant species and they obtain much of their water through ingesting vegetation; they thrive where other species perish. In many ways, the dromedary could be said to “belong” in this harsh environment. Yet for numerous Australians, particularly ranchers, conservation managers, and increasingly local and national governments, camels are perceived as pests and unwelcome invaders. Anthropologists studying human classifications of non-human animals have suggested that those species or populations that fail to fit neatly into existing classification systems come to be considered “out of place,” particularly when they enter human domains or disturb existing perceptual boundaries of environmental order. Through exploring and analyzing academic, government, and media publications, this review proposes that today's Australian dromedaries exemplify “animals out of place” and discusses how and why they have developed this status. It is further suggested that in addition to being classified as “out of place” in Australia, the dromedary has also become “out of time,” as its classification has transformed with temporal shifts in human circumstances, cultural values, and worldviews.     

John Salter and the Ediacara Fauna of the Longmyndian Supergroup

John W. Salter's papers of 1856 and 1857 reported trace and body fossils from rocks of the Longmyndian Supergroup, Shropshire, that conventional wisdom had deemed literally “Azoic.” The significance of this work is reflected by its mention in On the Origin of Species, where it is cited as evidence for the existence of life prior to the Cambrian radiation. This study of Salter's historic specimens combined with recent field studies confirms that these structures likely represent microbial rather than metazoan markings. Nevertheless, this review confirms Salter as the unheralded founder of Precambrian palaeontology, many years before the existence of a Precambrian fossil record was widely known. This study also gives credit to a highly skilled palaeontologist, who appears to have struggled with psychological problems throughout his life. Salter had once been Adam Sedgwick's “youthful and cheerful companion” in the field, prior to embarking on an initially successful Geological Survey career. He was a widely renowned expert on Palaeozoic palaeontology, especially trilobites, but eventually fell into serious depression, which culminated in his suicide in 1869. Study and reinterpretation of his original materials reaffirms the importance of Salter's discoveries, and the Longmynd for our understanding of late Ediacaran palaeobiology.     

Note on Lepidosiren annectens,Owen.

Refeering to Prof. Owen's paper on Lepidosiren in the 18th volume of the Society's “Transactions,” the author states that the conclusion at which that gentleman has arrived, that the animal in question is a Pish, although controverted by some of our best naturalists, appears to him to receive confirmation from one or two points in its structure on which no great stress has hitherto been laid. The first of these relates to the mode in which the gill is covered, having only a single small external opening, in which respect Lepidosiren makes a very near approach to Muræna. Secondly, the two peculiar anterior teeth in the upper jaw 80 closely resemble those of some Fishes, that the vignette representing these teeth in Echiodon Drummondii, given in Mr. Yarrell's “History of British Fishes,” might serve as well for the front teeth of Lepidosiren. Thirdly, the continuous dorsal, caudal and anal fin, and the absence of pectorals and ventrals, are common characters among Murænidæ. And fourthly, the true Fish-scales, together with the lateral line extending from the gill to the extremity of the tail, are characters peculiar to Fishes, and not to be found among Amphibian Beptiles. Assuming then that Lepidosiren is unquestionably a Fish, and not either a Reptile or an osculant between Fishes and Reptiles, Mr. Newman regards it as completely obliterating the boundary set up by Cuvier between the two great subclasses of Fishes, the Osseous and the Cartilaginous. In support of this opinion he quotes several passages from Prof. Owen's paper, and concludes by stating his conviction that it is “equally impossible to place it in either the Cartilaginous or Osseous series; and we are compelled either to establish an intermediate series, consisting of but three species or perhaps genera, or to break up those great divisions, which have received the almost universal approbation of naturalists. The first course seems most undesirable in an age in which we are exerting ourselves to find associates and allies for every abnormal form, however apparently isolated. The alternative, the mingling of cartilaginous and osseous fishes, seems inevitable.”     

DIFFERING ONTOGENETIC ORIGINS OF PCR (“KRANZ”) SHEATHS IN LEAF BLADES OF C4 GRASSES (POACEAE)

The origin and early development of procambium and associated ground meristem of major and minor veins have been examined in the leaf blades of seven C₄ grass species, representing different taxonomic groups and the three recognized biochemical C₄ types (NAD-ME, PCK, and NADP-ME). Comparisons were made with the C₃ species, Festuca arundinacea. In “double sheath” (XyMS+) species (Panicum effusum, Eleusine coracana, and Sporoboìus elongatus), the procambium of major veins gives rise to xylem, phloem, and a mestome sheath; associated ground meristem differentiates into PCA (“C₄ mesophyll”) tissue and the PCR (“Kranz”) sheath. Development in the C₃ species parallels this pattern, except that associated ground meristem differentiates into mesophyll and a parenchymatous bundle sheath. In contrast, major vein procambium of “single sheath” (XyMS–) species (Panicum bulbosum, Digitaria brownii, and Cymbopogon procerus) differentiates into xylem, phloem and a PCR sheath; associated ground meristem gives rise to PCA tissue. These observations of major vein development support W. V. Brown's hypothesis that the PCR sheaths of “double sheath” (XyMS+) C₄ grasses are homologous with the parenchymatous bundle sheaths of C₃ grasses, while in “single sheath” (XyMS–) C₄ species they are homologous with the mestome sheath. Although there are some similarities in the development of the major and minor vascular bundle procambium in the C₄ species examined, the ontogeny of the smaller minor veins is characterized by a precocious delineation of the PCR sheath layer that may even precede the appearance of the distinctive cytological features of ground meristem and procambium. This contracted development in minor veins appears to be related to their close spacing in mature leaves and to their comparatively late appearance during leaf ontogeny.     

Theoretical perspectives on cinema in Africa: Culture,identity and Diaspora

The study of African cinema is often assumed to be the study of black film. This paper examines this notion with respect to definitions of Africa, questions of identity, and different historical discourses of resistance. Western psychocentric approaches to film criticism are criticized. The issue of authorship is revisited with the question: Can a white director make a film reflecting the “black” experience? This question is explored with reference to debates about Spike Lee's Malcolm X and South African director Oliver Schmitz's Mapantsula. In the process, J examine how meanings are articulated and rearticulated in specific contexts by both those who define them and audiences which interpret them. The articulations of “race wars” in the USA and South Africa respectively are discussed, as is the relationship between race and class in the anti‐apartheid struggle. The disarticulation of Black Consciousness in South Africa from its popularizer, Steve Biko, by film activists in the Mass Democratic Movement during the 1980s, provides a background for the emergence of “non‐racial” cinema. Reception is suggested as a more subtle means of film categorisation. Mapantsula, for example, though made by a mainly white crew, is understood by black audiences to be a film accurately reflecting the experience of the black oppressed in South Africa. Though reception is a dynamic response, shifting and responding to historical trajectories and new discourses, with interpretations fragmenting between different classes and class fractions at different times, such a strategy for area and cultural classification of films avoids the pitfalls of categories based on ideology, myth, race and language.     

Fine Structure of Oocyst Transformation and the Sporozoites of Leucocytozoon dubreuili*

SYNOPSIS. The sporogonic stages of Leucocytozoon dubreuili in the midgut and salivary glands of the simuliid vectors was studied by electron microscopy. Young uninucleate oocysts have a pellicle that initially resembles that of the ookinetc. Numerous electron-dense bodies and microtubules in the peripheral cytoplasm may be involved in the formation of the cyst wall. The dense bodies appear to give rise to the amorphous material of the wall. The tubules which run circumferentially beneath the oocyst's boundary probably serve as a skeletal support for the cell surface during deposition of the wall material. A subcapsular “space” which provides area for expansion of the developing sporozoites is formed in early multinucleate oocysts. The subcapsular “space” appears to be formed through a condensation of the peripheral cytoplasm, resulting in an osmotic gradient across the oocyst's limiting membrane. Consequently water diffuses out, creating a fluid-filled space. Sporozoite formation begins with localized thickenings on the oocyst's limiting membrane. Subsequent extension of the thickened regions into the subcapsular “space” marks the onset of sporozoite budding. The process is highly synchronized, and culminates with the production of up to 150 sporozoites about the sporoblastoid body. The structure of sporozoites from mature oocysts and of the salivary glands of the vector is basically similar, although salivary gland sporozoites are more elongate and have numerous electron-dense micronemes. The paired rhoptries in the latter sporozoites are more elongate and uniformly electron-dense than in oocyst sporozoites.     

An Analysis of the Formation of Ciliary Primordia in the Hypotrich Ciliate Urostyla weissei*

SYNOPSIS. The protargol technic was used in a study of the development of oral, cirral, and dorsal primordia of Urostyla weissei fixed during division, reorganization, and regeneration following transection at different levels. While the course of development is similar in all situations, differences were observed in the way in which some primordia are initiaily formed. The primordium of the new AZM always appears posterior to the old AZM. It develops into an entire new membranellar band in dividing cells and in opimers (posterior fragments from equatorial transections), while it eventually joins with a portion of the old AZM in reorganizers, promers (anterior fragments from equatorial transections) and “large opimers” (cells whose anterior tip has been cut off). The UM-primordium of proters is derived from disaggregation of the kinetosomes of the 2 old UM's, that of opisthes and opimers is formed “de novo” to the right of the AZM-primordium, while the UM-primordium of reorganizers, promers, and “large opimers” is of composite origin, partly “de novo” and partly from the old UM's. The UM primordium differentiates into the new UM's and the 1st frontal cirrus. The primordia of the remaining frontal, ventral, transversal (F-V-T) and marginal cirri originate as “streaks” of cilia, most of which are derived from re-alignment of the constituent cilia of certain pre-existing cirri. New cirri differendiate from the streaks, and replace the remaining old cirri. The streaks are formed similarly in all developmental situations, except for the 1st 3 F-V-T streaks. In proters, reorganizers, and promers, these originate from the posterior 3 frontal cirri, while in opisthes and opimers they are formed “de novo” to the right of the UM-primordium. In the “large opimers” these streaks are formed “de novo” behind the 1st 3 frontal cirri, in spite of the continued presence of these cirri at the anterior tip of the fragments. The site of formation of these streaks thus appears to be determined by an anteriorposterior gradient, rather than by any preformed cortical structure. The new dorsal bristle rows I to III develop from the proliferation of portions of the old rows, while rows IV and V originate from short kineties formed “de novo” on the right margin. New caudal cirri differentiate at the posterior ends of the new rows I to III. The numbers of ventral cirral rows and transversal cirri are variable; these variations are correlated, and related to variations in numbers of developing streaks. A survey of hypotrich developmental patterns revealed extensive parallels, especially in the sites of appearance of primordia. The primordium site appears to be a more constant feature of cortical development than is the “source” of ciliary units. It is concluded that sites of primordia are determined by cellular gradients, with competent preformed structures being utilized if they are appropriately positioned within these gradients.     

Orientalism in the Documentary Representation of Culture

Structured around the idea that there is a non-linguistic and cross-cultural, possibly biological, basis on which the understanding of pictures rests, this essay looks at the ways whereby images in documentary films challenge the notion of cultural difference. Drawing on Said's Orientalism [1978] and its impact on the basic assumptions of anthropologists, the essay stresses Said's relevance to documentary film theorists, and discusses the work of visual anthropologists and filmmakers influenced by Merleau-Ponty's ideas about the phenomenology of perception. Discussion suggests that the kind of knowledge disclosed by revelatory films represents an important answer to one of the fundamental epistemological issues that Said does not take up in Orientalism, namely the question of the materialization of an “authentic human encounter” not subjugated to the dead book. The essay implies that we should have no objection in principle to the self/other dichotomy when it is used intelligently.