Status of biomethanation development in the Philippines

Summary Two major agro-industrial enterprizes have commercialized the biomethanation technology in the Philippines: the Maya Farm and the Central Azucarera de Tarlac. The Maya Farm produces biogas from the manure of 25 000 pigs. The reactors are of the batch type. The gas production is used for electricity generation, water pumping and heating, solid wastes drying etc. The Central Azucarera de Tarlac produces biogas from distillery slops and filter cake. The principle of the treatment is decantation followed by thermophilic anaerobic digestion lagooning with and without aeration and finally, irrigation of the sugar-cane fields with the final liquid effluent. The pollution load of the influent is reduced by 80% after anaerobic digestion and by 99% at the end of the treatment. The biogas produced is used to reactivate the spent carbon in the refinery kilns and in the boilers.

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Resumen Dos importantes fábricas agro-industriales han comercializado la técnología de la biometanación en Filipinas: la Granja Maya y la Central Azucarera de Tarlac. La Granja Maya produce biogas a partir del estiercol de 25 000 marranos. Los reactores son de una sola fase. Elagas producido se utiliza para generar electricidad, bombear y calentar agua, secar residuos sólidos, etc. La Central Azucarera de Tarmac produce biogas a partir de desechos de destilerias y de posos de filtrado. El tratamiento consiste en una decantación seguida de una digestión termofílica anaerobia mediante encharcamiento con o sin aereación y finalmente el riego de los campos de caña de azucar con el efluente líquido resultante. El nivel de polución del afluente se reduce en un 80% después de la digestión anaerobia y en un 99% al final del tratamiento. El biogas producido se utiliza para reactivar el carbón gastado en los hornos y calderas de la refinería.

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Résumé Deux importantes agro-industries ont commercialisé, la technologie de la biométhanisation aux Philippines: la ferme Maya et la sucrerie Central Azucarera de Tarlac (CAT). La ferme Maya produit du biogaz à partir du lisier de 25 000 porcs. Les digesteurs sont du type batch et la production de gaz est utilisée pour la production d'électricité, le pompage et le chauffage de l'eau, le séchage, etc. La sucrerie CAT produit du biogaz à partir de boues de distilleries et de gâteaux de filtration. Le principe du traitement est une décantation suivie d'une digestion

     

State of the biomethanation development in the Chinese stock-farms

Summary The development of Chinese rural areas and the raising of people's living standards increase the demand for energy supplies, quantitative as well as qualitative. Because of its advantages, biogas production is already used in 5 million households to cover everyday-life energy needs. About 20000 households use biogas produced in stock-farms and distributed through small biogas power stations or electricity stations. The annual biogas production potential from animal wastes could cover the energy needs of over 100 million households but research work is still needed to be done to find suitable designs for large-scale biomethanation development in stock-farms.

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Resumen El desarrollo de las zonas rurales en China y el incremento del nivel de vida aumentan la demanda cualitativa y cuantitativamente de fuentes de energía. Debidoa las ventajas del biogas más de 5 millones de hogares lo utilizan para cubrir sus necesidades energéticas diarias, cerca de 20000 hogares utilizan biogas producido en explotaciones ganaderas y distribuido a través de pequeñas centrales de biogas o electricas. El potencial anual de producción de biogas a partir de residuos animales podría cubrir la demanda energéticva de 100 millones de hogares, sin embargo hay que profundizar en la investigación a fin de diseñar los modelos más adecuados para el desarrollo de la biometanación a gran escala en las explotaciones ganaderas.

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Résumé Le développement des zones rurales chinoises et l'augmentation du niveau de vie dans ces régions provoque une augmentation de la demande d'énergie. A cause de ses avantages la production de biogaz est déjà utilisée dans 5 millions de ménages pour couvrir les besoins journaliers en énergie. De plus, près de 20000 ménages utilisent le biogaz produit dans les fermes d'élevage. Celui-ci est en effet distribué par de petites stations mécaniques ou électriques. Le potentiel annuel de production de biogaz à partir des lisiers animaux pourrait couvrir les besoins énergétiques de plus de 100 millions de ménages mais des recherches sont encore nécessaires pour la mise au point de procédés adaptés au développement à grande échelle de la biométhanisation dans les fermes d'élevage.

     

Status of biomethanation in Brazil: perspective and viability in the short and long term

Summary Biomethanation of all the polluting residues of the Brazilian processing industries could produce the energy equivalent to half the Brazilian alcohol production. Biogas production from surgar-cane processing wastewaters has an attractive payback period. There exists many advantages as well as disadvantages for biogas development in Brazil but production of biogas from any raw material should always be considered viable from the ecological and social points of view, independently from the involved costs.

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Resumen La biometanación de todos los residuos polucionantes de las industrias brasileñas de transformación podría producir el equivalente energético de la mitad de la producción brasileña de alcohol. La producción de biogas a partir de las aguas residuales de la industria de transformación de la caña de azucar tiene un periodo de amortización interesante. El desrrollo del biogas en Brasil tiene tantasventajas como inconvenientes, sin embargo, desde unpunto de vista ecológico y social, la producción de biogas a partir de cualquier materia prima ha de considerarse siempre como viable independientemente de los costes implicados.

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Résumé La biométhanisation de tous, les résidus polluants de l'industrie de transformation brézilienne produirait l'équivalent énergétique de la moitié de l'actuelle production brézilienne d'alcool. De plus on peut montrer que la production de biogaz à partir des eaux résiduaires de l'industrie de la canne à sucre est rentable. En fail il existe de nombreux avantages et désavantages au développement de la biométhanisation au Brésil mais la production de biogaz devrait en général être toujours considérée comme rentable du point de vue écologique et social, indépendamment des coûts en jeu.

     

Technologies competing with biomethanation

Summary Biomethanation is an appropriate renewable energy technology because (1) it utilizes three of the energy resources for new and renewable energy technologies (residue, waste and crop energy), (2) it allows decentralized production units, and (3) it minimally affects the country's imports bill. Moreover methane is one of the energy forms that allows the greatest number of possible end uses and therefore the competitiveness of biomethanation appears to be the best even though the efficiency for its conversion of biomass to energy is only 30 to 40%.

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Resumen La biometaniación es una tecnología de obtención de energía renovable adecuada ya que (1) usa tres fuentes de energía de las utilizables en tecnologías energéticas, ya sean nuevas o renovables: residuos, desechos y energía vegetal (2) permite la descentralización de las unidades de producción (3) afecta en menor grado la balanza de importaciones. Hay que tener en cuenta que además el metano es uno de los productos energéticos con más multiplicidades de uso, de forma que la biometanación aparece como la tecnología más adecuada aún cuando su eficiencia en la conversión de biomasa a energía sea de 30–40%.

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Résumé La biométhanisation est une technologie appropriée de production d'une énergie renouvelable. En effet elle utilise trois des ressources énergétiques disponibles pour ce type de technologie, elle permet l'utilisation d'unités de production décentralisées et c'est elle qui affecte le moins la facture d'importation du pays concerné. De plus le gaz méthane produit est une des formes d'énergie qui permet le plus grand nombre possible d'utilisations. C'est pourquoi la compétitivité de la biométhanisation semble la meilleure même si le rendement de sa conversion de la biomasse en énergie est seulement de 30 à 40%.

     

Solutions for on-farm integration of biomethanation

Summary A 100-m³ on-farm digester working on bovine manure has been built by the Belgian industrial sector in view of acquiring the know-how in biomethanation technology. After three years of experiments, a project has been started to achieve the on-farm integration of the digester, i.e. to find solutions to the problems occurring upstream in relation to the flow of manure, downstream to the flow of biogas, and to increase the farmer's interests in the management of the plant. Ultimately, the dynamic aspect of farm management shall have a continuous impact on the digester on-farm integration with innovations taking the digester into account.

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Resumen A fin de obtener información sobre la tecnología de la biometanación el sector industrial belga ha construido, integrado en una granja, un digestor de 100 m³ alimentado por estiercol vacuno. Después de tres años de experimentos se ha iniciado un proyecto a fin de lograr la completa integración del digestor en la explotación ganadera. Para ellohay que aportar soluciones a los problemas que ocurren rio arriba en relación con el flujo de estiercol y rio abajo con el de biogas, o bien incrementar el interés del granjero por la gestión de la planta. En el fondo tan solo una gestión dinámica de la explotación ganadera tendrá un impacto prolongado en la integración del digestor en la granja generando innovaciones que tengan en cuenta al digestor.

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Résumé Un digesteur rural de 100 m³ traitant du lisier de bovins a été construit par le secteur industriel belge en vue de l'acquisition de know how en biométhanisation. Après trois ans d'expérience un nouveau projet a été entrepris afin de réaliser l'intégration à la ferme de ce digesteur, c'est-à-dire afin de trouver des solutions aux problèmes en amont du digesteur, en relation avec le flux de lisier, en aval du digesteur, en relation avec le flux de biogaz, et afin de susciter l'intérêt de l'agriculteur pour la gestion de l'installation. L'objectif du projet est d'atteindre le stade où l'aspect dynamique de la gestion de la ferme a des impacts continus sur l'intégration du digesteur, de sorte que les innovations au sein de l'exploitation prennent le digesteur en compte.

     

Fluidized bed biomethanation of acetic acid

Summary The kinetics of acetate biomethanation was studied in a high recycle ratio biological fluidized bed reactor behaving in practice as a completely mixed reactor. The active biofilm consisted of bacteria from a methane fermenter that after spontaneous immobilization on the bed particles (sand) were adapted to acetate as the only carbon source. The effects of temperature (13°, 20°, 25° and 35°C), substrate concentration (500, 1000 and 1500 mg chemical oxygen demand (COD) l^-1) and hydraulic retention time (1 to 8 h) on substrate consumption were studied. Maximum substrate consumption (as % COD reduction) amounted from 25% (13°C, 1500 mg COD l^-1) to 93% (35°C, 500 mg COD l^-1). At 35°C the concentration of attached biomass presented a weakly increase with reactor substrate concentration (from 3.10 g VS l^-1 to 4.54 g VS l^-1 for 32 and 1150 mg COD l^-1 respectively). On the other hand when reducing , a sharp incrase in biomass loss coefficient was observed showing that excess biofilm growth was continuously removed by shearing forces. Thus in the assayed conditions the attached biomass concentration was basically determined by the bed superficial velocity. Result show that diffusional resistances are negligible. Data are fairly well correlated by a variable order kinetic model. The apparent reaction order is a function of temperature and increases from 0.27 to 0.7 when temperature decreases from 35° C to 13°C.Nomenclature b Total biomass loss coefficient (T^-1) - J Flux of substrate removal into the biofilm surface (ML^-2 T^-1) - J _d Flux of substrate removed into the biofilm surface in deep conditions (ML^-2 T^-1) - k Maximum specific rate of substrate utilization (T^-1) - K Variable order kinetic constant (T^-1 M^n-1 L^3n-3) - K _s9 Hall saturation constant (ML^-3) - n Reaction order - q Feed flow rate (L³ T^-1) - S Substrate concentration (ML^-3) - Se Effluent substrate concentration (ML^-3) - So Influent substrate concentration (ML^-3) - Se_min Minimum substrate concentration able to sustain a steady-state biofilm (ML^-3) - T Temperature - t Time(T) - V Bed volume (L³) - VS Volatile solids (M) - VSS Volatile suspended solids - X Attached biomass concentration (ML^-3) - X _c Effluent volatile suspended solids (ML^-3) - Y Yield coefficient - Hydraulic retention time (T) This work forms part of a Doctoral Thesis of senior author     

Report on the use of biomethanation in Argentina

Summary Biomethanation in Argentina is considered for the treatment of agro-industrial wastes, to reduce pollution and costs of wastewater treatment, and for the treatment of animal manure in locations far away from the energy-distribution systems. For the treatment of stillage the Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactor has been retained on the basis of the results obtained in a 100-litre semi-pilot-plant reactor. A 30-m³ UASB pilot plant is to be built in a leading distillery. The expected production of a full-scale plant would cover, 65 to 70% of the energy needs of the distillery. In biomethanation of manure, the only farms that could profit from biogas technology are the milking farms located far away from the electricity distribution system where the manure collected during the milking time could produce the energy needed to cool the milk from 22°C to 4°C.

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Resumen En Argentina se usa la biometanación para el tratamiento de residuos agro-industriales, para reducir los niveles de polución y el coste de tratamiento de aguas residules y para el tratamiento de estiercol animal en lugares lejanos de la red de distribución energética. Debido a los resultados obtenidos en un reactor semi-piloto de 100 litros se sigue utilizando el UASB para el tratamiento de los desechos de destileria. Se va a construir una planta piloto UASB en una de las destilerias más importantes. Las expectativas de producción cubren du un 65% a un 70% de las necesidades energéticas de la destileria. En relación con la biometanación de estiercol las únicas explotaciones agrarias que podrían beneficiarse de la tecnología del biogas son las granjas lecheras localizadas lejos de la red de distribución electrica donde el estiercol recogido durante el tiempo de ordeñe podría producir la energía necesaria para enfriar la leche de 22°C a 4°C.

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Résumé En Argentine la biométhanisation est essentiellement prise en compte d'une part pour le traitement des eaux résiduaries des agro-industries, pour réduire la pollution et le coût de traitement des ces déchets, et d'autre part pour le traitement de lisiers animaux dans des régions éloignées du réseau de distribution d'énergie. En ce qui concerne le traitement des eaux résiduaires, le procédé Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) a été retenu sur base des résultats obtenus dans un digesteur pilote de 100 1. Une installation pilote de 30 m³ sera construite dans une distillerie importante susceptible de couvrir 65 à 75% de ses besoins énergétiques avec la production attendue d'une installtion de taille réelle. En ce qui concerne la biométhanisation de lisier, les seules exploitations qui tireraient profit de la technologie sont les élevages laitiers situés loin du réseau de distribution d'électricité, où le lisier récolté pendant la traite pourrait produire l'énergie suffisant au refroidissement du lait.

     

Anaerobic protozoa and their growth in biomethanation systems

This study was to investigate growth of protozoa and its influence on biodegradation in anaerobic treatment systems. It was done by specifically controlling and monitoring growth of protozoa versus degradation in continuous stirred anaerobic reactors and batch anaerobic reactors. Occurrence of a diverse protozoa population such as the ciliates, Prorodon, Vorticella, Cyclidium, Spathidium, Loxodes, Metopus were observed in stable anaerobic systems and the flagellates, Rhynchomonas, Naeglaria, Amoeboflagellates, Tetramitus, Trepomonas and Bodo during increased VFA concentration and affected periods of biomethanation. The abundance of ciliates in the anaerobic system had significant correlation with the reduction of MLSS, increased rate of COD removal and higher methane production. The results of this study thus tend to relate increased anaerobic degradation with the abundance of protozoa, mainly ciliates, which indicate their possible involvement in the process. Present study also reveals that performance of anaerobic process can be assessed by monitoring the protozoa population in the system.     

Agriculture and economic development in India

The expansion in agricultural production is inevitable if India is to meet the food requirements of its increasing population. Today's utilization and consumption of the major economic crops, endeavors to improve these, and future needs are discussed.     

Enhanced biomethanation of kitchen waste by different pre-treatments

Five different pre-treatments were investigated to enhance the solubilisation and anaerobic biodegradability of kitchen waste (KW) in thermophilic batch and continuous tests. In the batch solubilisation tests, the highest and the lowest solubilisation efficiency were achieved with the thermo-acid and the pressure-depressure pre-treatments, respectively. However, in the batch biodegradability tests, the highest cumulative biogas production was obtained with the pressure-depressure method. In the continuous tests, the best performance in terms of an acceptable biogas production efficiency of 60% and stable in-reactor COD_s and VFA concentrations corresponded to the pressure-depressure reactor, followed by freeze-thaw, acid, thermo-acid, thermo and control. The maximum OLR (5 g COD L⁻¹ d⁻¹) applied in the pressure-depressure and freeze-thaw reactors almost doubled the control reactor. From the overall analysis, the freeze-thaw pre-treatment was the most profitable process with a net potential profit of around 11.5 € ton⁻¹ KW.     

Effect of microwave irradiated Methanosarcina barkeri DSM-804 on biomethanation

Methanosarcina barkeri DSM-804, a methanogenic bacterium, when exposed to microwave radiation of frequencies ranging from 13.5 to 36.5 GHz, showed faster growth in comparison to the unirradiated bacterial culture. Methane concentration in the biogas generated from the irradiated culture was higher than that from unirradiated one, which was to 76.3% on the 15th day of incubation at a microwave radiation frequency of 31.5 GHz, 10 dbm power when irradiated for 2 h. Microscopic study of pure culture revealed that the cells of M. barkeri were more in number and their cell diameter was enlarged by 20%. Inoculation of the culture in a biogas digester containing a combination of jute waste and vegetable market waste as substrate increased the efficacy of biomethanation and reduced its lag phase significantly.     

The effect of temperature variation on biomethanation at high altitude

The aim of the current study was to examine effects of daily temperature variations on the performance of anaerobic digestion. Forced square-wave temperature variations (between 11 and 25, 15 and 28, and 19 and 32 degrees C) were imposed on a bench-scale digester using a mixture of llama-cow-sheep manure in a semi-continuous process. The volumetric biogas production rate, methane yield, and the volatile solid reductions were compared with the results obtained from anaerobic digestion (AD) at constant temperatures. The forced cyclic variations of temperature caused large cyclic variations in the rate of gas production and the methane content. As much as 94-97% of the daily biogas was obtained in the 12h half-cycle at high temperature. The values for volumetric biogas production rate and methane yield increased at higher temperatures. The average volumetric biogas production rate for cyclic operation between 11 and 25 degrees C was 0.22Ld(-1)L(-1) with a yield of 0.07m3CH4kg(-1) VS added (VSadd), whereas for operation between 15 and 29 degrees C the volumetric biogas production rate increased by 25% (to 0.27Ld(-1)L(-1) with a yield of 0.08m3CH4kg(-1) VSadd). In the highest temperature region a further increase of 7% in biogas production was found and the methane yield was 0.089m(3)CH(4)kg(-1) VSadd. The employed digester showed an immediate response when the temperature was elevated, which indicates a well-maintained metabolic capacity of the methanogenic bacteria during the period of low temperature. Overall, periodic temperature variations appear to give less decrease in process performance than a priori anticipated.     

Status and conservation of the Asian Elephant Elephas maximus in north-eastern India

A status survey of Asian Elephants Elephas maximus was conducted in the 9 north-eastern states of India. The habitat is contiguous with that in Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh. Although the estimated population of 11 000 elephants is higher than in other regions of the Indian Sub-continent, it is fragmented and a number of small inviable isolated populations have formed. About 35% of the population is partly protected, but protection is inadequate. More areas and migration routes need to be protected. Man–elephant conflict is serious in many areas. A comprehensive Action Plan with a more pragmatic protected-area network has been proposed.     

Status of Trachypithecus geei in a Rubber Plantation in Western Assam, India

Golden langurs (Trachypithecus geei) are an endangered species in a limited area of Northeast India and Bhutan. They are confined to a forest belt in western Assam between the Manas River in the east, Sankosh in the west and Brahmaputra in the south along the Indo-Bhutan border. Due to habitat destruction, their populations are restricted to fragmented forest pockets, especially in India. We compared data on an isolated population of golden langurs in the rubber plantation of Nayakgaon in the Kokrajhar district of Assam, May 2002 with an earlier census in 1997. We counted a total of 52 individuals in 3 troops in 2002. The average troop size is 17.3 (r = 7–26). The ratio of adult male to adult females is 1:3.16. Of the total population 9.6% were adult males, 21.1% were adult females, 17.3% subadult males, 7.7% subadult females, 19.2% juveniles and 25% infants. In 1997 Srivastava et. al., recorded 38 individuals in 5 troops with an average troop size of only 7.6 . Apparently troop fusion has occurred. The increased population is encouraging.     

Multi stage high rate biomethanation of poultry litter with self mixed anaerobic digester

A multi stage high rate biomethanation process with novel self mixed anaerobic digester (SMAD) was developed in the present study to reduce the hydraulic residence time (HRT), increase the volatile solids (VS) loading rate, improve the VS destruction efficiency and enhance the methane yield. Specific design features of SMAD were useful in mixing the digester contents without consuming power and de-alienated the problem of scum formation. In the first phase, poultry litter having 10% total solids (TS) was subjected to high rate biomethanation in multi stage configuration (SMAD-I and II in series with UASB reactor). It was observed that gross VS reduction of 58%, gross methane yield of 0.16 m³ kg⁻¹ (VS reduced) and VS loading rate of 3.5 kg VS m⁻³ day⁻¹ at HRT of 13 days was obtained. In the second phase SMAD-II was bypassed from the process scheme keeping the other parameters same as in the first phase. The results obtained were not as encouraging as in the first phase. The study showed that multi stage configuration with SMAD design improved the anaerobic digestion process efficiency of poultry litter.     

Status and Distribution of Macaca fascicularis umbrosa in the Nicobar Islands, India

We surveyed the distribution and status of the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosa) in the Nicobar Islands of India. Long-tailed macaques live on 3 islands: Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar and Katchal. There are a total 788 groups. Group size ranged from 25 to 56 individuals with a mean size of 36. Long-tailed macaques are a multimale-multifemale society. Adult males, adult females and immatures constituted 9.7 per cent, 43.2 per cent and 47.1 per cent of the population, respectively. A fairly high ratio of immatures to adult females indicates a healthy population turnover. Vegetation parameters including tree density, canopy cover, canopy height and basal area indicated a still healthful habitats on all the 3 islands. We observed a few threats to the macaques. Measures should be undertaken to ensure survival of the Nicobar subspecies.