One of the two trout proopiomelanocortin messenger RNAs potentially encodes new peptides.

POMC is the precursor for a number of biologically active peptides such as ACTH, alpha-MSH, beta-MSH, and beta-endorphin. It is well known that some of these peptides, especially beta-endorphin, are involved in the regulation of reproductive functions in mammals. In order to investigate the possible role of POMC-derived peptides in the control of fish reproduction, we have cloned and sequenced two different trout POMC cDNAs called POMC A and POMC B. These cDNAs exhibited limited sequence homology (44%). The deduced amino acid sequences also showed weak similarity (43%), despite the high conservation of some peptide sequences (alpha-MSH, beta-MSH, and beta-endorphin). The POMC A coding sequence exhibited an unusual length, generating the longest endorphin ever sequenced. The long carboxy-terminal part of the beta-endorphin A contained three potential dibasic cleavage sites, allowing the occurrence of three new peptides: EQWGREEGEE, ALGE, and YHFQG. Using in situ hybridization, we found that the two POMC genes were expressed in the same pituitary cells. POMC A mRNA was the only one detectable in the hypothalamus of sexually inactive fish, whereas the two POMC genes were expressed in the hypothalamus of sexually active fish. These results indicate that two functional POMC genes are present in the rainbow trout. In POMC neurons, the expression of the POMC B gene is likely to be under the control of sexual steroids.     

Potent peptide agonists for human melanocortin 3 and 4 receptors derived from enzymatic cleavages of human beta-MSH(5-22) by dipeptidyl peptidase I and dipeptidyl peptidase IV

Human beta-MSH(1-22) was first isolated from human pituitary as a 22-amino acid (aa) peptide derived from a precursor protein, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). However, Bertagna et al. demonstrated that a shorter human beta-MSH(5-22), (DEGPYRMEHFRWGSPPKD), is a true endogenous peptide produced in human hypothalamus. In this report, we demonstrated that in vitro enzymatic cleavage of native human beta-MSH(5-22) with two ubiquitous dipeptidyl peptidases (DPP), DPP-I and DPP-IV, generated two potent MC3/4R peptide analogues, beta-MSH(7-22) (GPYRMEHFRWGSPPKD) and beta-MSH(9-22) (YRMEHFRWGSPPKD). In fact, the MC4R binding affinity and functional potency of beta-MSH(7-22) (Ki=4.6 nM, EC50=0.6 nM) and beta-MSH(9-22) (Ki=5.7 nM, EC50=0.6 nM) are almost an order of magnitude greater than those of their parent peptide, beta-MSH(5-22) (MC4R, Ki=23 nM, EC50= 3nM). Furthermore, the DPP-I/DPP-IV cleaved peptide, beta-MSH(9-22), when administered intracerebroventricularly (ICV) at a dose of 3 nmol/rat, potently induced an acute negative energy balance in a diet-induced obese rat model, while its parent molecule, beta-MSH(5-22), administered at the same dose did not have any effect. These data suggest that DPP-I and DPP-IV may play a role in converting the endogenous beta-MSH(5-22) to more potent peptides that regulate energy homeostasis in the hypothalamus.     

Spatiotemporal expression, distribution, and processing of POMC and POMC-derived peptides in murine skin.

In murine skin, after depilation-induced anagen, there was a differential spatial and temporal expression of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) mRNA, of the POMC-derived peptides beta-endorphin, ACTH, beta-MSH, and alpha-MSH, and of the prohormone convertases PC1 and PC2 in epidermal and hair follicle keratinocytes and in the cells of sebaceous units. Using a combination of in situ hybridization histochemistry and immunohistochemistry, we found cell-specific variations in the expression of POMC mRNA that were consistent with immunoreactivities for POMC-derived peptides. Cells that contained POMC peptide immunoreactivity (IR) also expressed POMC mRNA, and where the IR increased there was a parallel increase in mRNA. The levels of PC1-IR and PC2-IR also showed cell-specific variations and were present in the same cells that contained the POMC peptides. Based on the cleavage specificities of these convertases and on the spatial and temporal expression of the convertases and of ACTH, beta-endorphin, beta-MSH, and alpha-MSH, we can infer that the activities of PC1 and PC2 are responsible for the cell-specific differential processing of POMC in murine skin.     

In vitro modulation of fish phagocytic cells by beta-endorphin

The activation of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, and carp, Cyprinus carpio, phagocytic cells by synthetic chum salmon, O. keta, beta-endorphin was analysed in vitro. Rainbow trout head kidney leukocytes were cultured in RPMI 1640 medium containing 1, 10, 50 or 100 ng ml-1 of chum salmon beta-endorphin and the production of superoxide anion was measured via the reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) in vitro. Macrophages incubated with 10 ng ml-1 up to 100 ng ml-1 of beta-endorphin showed an increase in their production of superoxide anion in comparison with control macrophages which were cultured without hormone. beta-endorphin also increased the production of superoxide anion in phagocytic cells prepared from kidney of carp. This stimulation was inhibited by naloxone. Phagocytic cells treated with beta-endorphin also displayed increased phagocytic activity and phagocytic index. These results showed that beta-endorphin in lower vertebrates activates the function of phagocytic cells in vitro.     

Probing the relationship between alpha-helix formation and calcium affinity in troponin C: 1H NMR studies of calcium binding to synthetic and variant site III helix-loop-helix peptides

Three 34-residue peptides corresponding to the high-affinity calcium-binding site III and two variant sequences from the muscle protein troponin C (TnC) were synthesized by solid-phase techniques. The two variant 34-residue peptides had amino acid modifications at either the coordinating positions or both the coordinating and noncoordinating positions, which corresponded to the residues found in the low-affinity calcium-binding site II of TnC. High-field 1H NMR spectroscopy was used to monitor calcium binding to each peptide to determine the effect these amino acid substitutions had on calcium affinity. The dissociation constant of the native site III peptide (SCIII) was 3 x 10(-6) M, smaller than that of the peptide incorporating the ligands from site II (LIIL), 8 x 10(-6) M, and that with the entire site II loop (LII), 3 x 10(-3) M, which bound calcium very weakly. These calcium dissociation constants demonstrate that very minor amino acid substitutions have a significant effect on the dissociation constant and give some insight into why the dissociation constants for site III and IV in TnC are 100-fold smaller than those for sites I and II. The results suggest that the differences in coordinating ligands between sites II and III have very little effect on Ca2+ affinity and that the noncoordinating residues in the site II loop are responsible for the low affinity of site II compared to the high affinity of site III in TnC.     

Particular processing of pro-opiomelanocortin in Xenopus laevis intermediate pituitary. Sequencing of alpha- and beta-melanocyte-stimulating hormones

alpha- and beta-melanocyte-stimulating hormones (alpha-MSH and beta-MSH) have been isolated from Xenopus laevis neurointermediate pituitary and microsequenced. Intracellular alpha-MSH is not N-acetylated after proteolytic processing of pro-opiomelanocortin in contrast to mammalian alpha-MSHs. There is a high preservation of the melanotropic amino acid sequence common to all MSHs although in Xenopus beta-MSH a histidine residue replaces the glutamic acid residue found in position 8 of mammalian beta-MSHs.     

Determinants on simian virus 40 large T antigen are important for recognition and phosphorylation by casein kinase I.

Casein kinase I has been shown to phosphorylate Ser123 and possibly Thr124, in simian virus 40 (SV40) large T antigen; the same sites are also modified in cultured cells incubated with 32Pi [Friedrich A. Gr?sser, Karl H. Scheidtmann, Polygena T. Tuazon, Jolinda A. Traugh & Gernot Walter (1988) Virology 165, 13-22]. The peptide, A-D-S-Q-H-S-T-P-P, which corresponds to the amino acid sequence 118-125 of SV40 large T antigen, was synthesized together with peptides containing changes in specific amino acid residues on either side of Ser123. These peptides were used as model substrates to determine the amino acids in the SV40 large T antigen important for recognition by casein kinase I. The native peptide identified above, with aspartate at the -4 position, was a poor substrate for casein kinase I in vitro. Peptides with acidic residues added at the -2 and -3 positions, preceding Ser123, were phosphorylated by casein kinase I with apparent Km values around 2 mM and Vmax values up to 500 pmol.min-1.ml-1. When acidic residues were added at both sides of the phosphorylatable serine, the peptide had a first-order rate constant over 20-fold higher than peptides with acidic amino acid residues at the N-terminus only; the apparent Km value was 0.65 mM with a Vmax of 2900 pmol.min-1.ml-1. The effects of modifying Ser120 to phosphoserine were examined by addition of a recognition sequence for the cAMP-dependent protein kinase prior to Ser120. Prior phosphorylation of the peptide at Ser120 lowered the apparent Km to 0.061 mM and increased the Vmax to 360 pmol.min-1.ml-1, a 50-fold decrease in Km for casein kinase I and a 6-fold increase in Vmax as compared to the non-phosphorylated peptide. This indicates that Ser120, which has been shown to be phosphorylated in vivo, provides an appropriate recognition determinant for casein kinase I.     

Nucleotide sequence of cloned cDNA for pro-opiomelanocortin in the amphibian Xenopus laevis

The function of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) is not known in mammals. It is well-established in the amphibian Xenopus laevis in which alpha-MSH mediates the process of adaptation to a dark background. The amino acid sequence of this hormone is, however, not known in amphibians. In order to determine the primary structure of the precursor protein for alpha-MSH, which in mammals has been called pro-opiomelancortin (POMC), we constructed a cDNA library from Xenopus pituitary mRNA. A pool of synthetic oligodeoxyribonucleotide tetradecamers corresponding to part of the mammalian alpha-MSH sequence was used to screen the library. The nucleotide sequence of a 1050-base pair hybridization-positive cDNA clone was determined and the deduced amino acid sequence of Xenopus POMC revealed the sequences of Xenopus gamma-MSH, alpha-MSH, corticotropin-like intermediate lobe peptide, beta-MSH, and beta-endorphin. Interestingly, the N-terminal amino acid of Xenopus alpha-MSH, which is N alpha-acetylated in the biologically active form of the hormone, is different from that of mammalian alpha-MSH. The distribution of the bioactive domains within Xenopus POMC is remarkably similar to that in other known POMC molecules and as in mammals the domains in the amphibian prohormone are flanked on both sides by pairs of basic amino acids.     

Immunohistochemical localization and biochemical characterization of two novel decapeptides derived from POMC-A in the trout hypothalamus

Several vertebrate species which underwent duplication of their genome, such as trout, salmon and Xenopus, possess two proopiomelanocortin (POMC) genes. In the trout, one of the POMC molecules, called POMC-A, exhibits a unique C-terminal extension of 25 amino acids which has no equivalent in other POMCs characterized so far. This C-terminal peptide contains three pairs of basic residues, suggesting that it may be the source of novel regulatory peptides. The aim of the present study was to investigate the occurrence of these peptides in the brain of the trout Oncorhynchus mykiss by using specific antibodies raised against two epitopes derived from the C-terminal extension of POMC-A, i.e., EQWGREEGEE and YHFQ-NH2. Immunohistochemical labeling of brain sections revealed the presence of EQWGREEGEE- and YHFQ-NH2-immunoreactive cell bodies in the anterior part of the nucleus lateralis tuberis of the hypothalamus. Immunoreactive fibers were observed in the dorsal hypothalamus, the thalamus, the telencephalon, the optic tectum and the medulla oblongata. In contrast, no labeling was detected using antibodies against the non-amidated peptide YHFQG. Biochemical characterization was performed by combining high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis with radioimmunoassay (RIA) quantification. Two peptides exhibiting the same retention time as synthetic EQWGREEGEE and ALGERKYHFQ-NH2 were resolved. However, no peptide co-eluting with YHFQ-NH2 or YHFQG could be detected. These results demonstrate that, in the trout brain, post-translational processing of POMC-A generates the two decapeptides EQWGREEGEE and ALGERKYHFQ-NH2. The wide distribution of immunoreactive fibers in the diencephalon, telencephalon, optic tectum and medulla oblongata suggests that these peptides may exert neurotransmitter and/or neuromodulator activities.     

The complement component C5 of the common carp (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cyprinus carpio</Emphasis>): cDNA cloning of two distinct isotypes that differ in a functional site

The complement component C5 plays important roles in inflammatory responses and complement-mediated cytolysis. In bony fish, although C5 has been identified at the DNA or the protein level in trout, carp and gilthead seabream, only partial C5 sequences are available. The present study was designed to obtain the complete primary structure of C5 from the common carp ( Cyprinus carpio) and to examine its possible structural diversity. Reverse-transcribed polymerase chain reaction amplification from carp hepatopancreatic RNA resulted in isolation of six distinct C5-like cDNA segments, which were grouped into two divergent types (type I and type II). Using two sequences representative of the two types as probes, two distinct full-length cDNA clones (C5-1 and C5-2) were isolated, in addition to a truncated isoform of C5-1 (C5-1'). The deduced amino acid sequences of C5-1 and C5-2 share 83% identity and predict a typical two-chain structure of the mature protein that lacks the thioester bond, as in C5 from other animals. Southern hybridization of genomic DNA suggested the presence of multiple genes encoding C5-type I and a single gene encoding C5-type II. Interestingly, carp C5-type I contains novel subtypes like C5-1 that have a histidine instead of the well-conserved arginine at the cleavage site for the C5 convertase, both in the complete and truncated forms. Northern blotting analysis suggested that C5-type I and C5-type II are mainly expressed in hepatopancreas, and the expression levels are significantly increased by stimulating carp with lipopolysaccharide or beta-1,3-glucan. Possible functional divergence among the C5 isotypes in carp is discussed.     

A novel functional class I lineage in zebrafish (Danio rerio), carp (Cyprinus carpio), and large barbus (Barbus intermedius) showing an unusual conservation of the peptide binding domains

Species from all major jawed vertebrate taxa possess linked polymorphic class I and II genes located in an MHC. The bony fish are exceptional with class I and II genes located on different linkage groups. Zebrafish (Danio rerio), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), and barbus (Barbus intermedius) represent highly divergent cyprinid genera. The genera Danio and Cyprinus diverged 50 million years ago, while Cyprinus and Barbus separated 30 million years ago. In this study, we report the first complete protein-coding class I ZE lineage cDNA sequences with high similarity between the three cyprinid species. Two unique complete protein-coding cDNA sequences were isolated in zebrafish, Dare-ZE*0101 and Dare-ZE*0102, one in common carp, Cyca-ZE*0101, and six in barbus, Bain-ZE*0101, Bain-ZE*0102, Bain-ZE*0201, Bain-ZE*0301, Bain-ZE*0401, and Bain-ZE*0402. Deduced amino acid sequences indicate that these sequences encode bonafide class I proteins. In addition, the presence of conserved potential peptide anchoring residues, exon-intron organization, ubiquitous expression, and polymorphism generated by positive selection on putative peptide binding residues support a classical nature of class I ZE lineage genes. Phylogenetic analyses revealed clustering of the ZE lineage clade with nonclassical cyprinid class I Z lineage clade away from classical cyprinid class I genes, suggesting a common ancestor of these nonclassical genes as observed for mammalian class I genes. Data strongly support the classical nature of these ZE lineage genes that evolved in a trans-species fashion with lineages being maintained for up to 100 million years as estimated by divergence time calculations.     

Identification of the major sites of enzymic glycosylation of myelin basic protein

In the presence of porcine submaxillary N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase and uridine diphospho-N-acetyl-D-galactosamine, approx. 1.2-1.5 mol of N-acetylgalactosamine were transfered per mol of myelin basic protein. Tritium-labelled N-acetylgalactosamine-labelled basic protein was digested with trypsin and the peptides were separated by HPLC and the radioactivity measured. Most of the radioactivity was associated with three peptide peaks (I, II and III) containing 17, 69 and 6% of the total radioactivity, respectively. The remaining radioactivity was distributed amongst several peptides, each containing less than 2.5% of the total radioactivity. Glycosylation of the basic proteins isolated from human, bovine and guinea pig myelins showed that they were all equally good acceptors. In spite of differences in the peptide profiles of the basic proteins from different species, the distribution of radioactivity between the three peptide peaks was similar for all the species studied. The transfer of N-acetylgalactosamine to peptide II was much faster than to peptides I and III. The apparent Km values of the three peptides were within a narrow range of 0.52-0.63 mM, whereas the Vmax values were considerably different. The glycosylated peptide peaks (I, II and III) were separated by electrophoresis, the radioactivity measured, and amino acid compositions determined after hydrolysis. The major radioactive peptides of the human basic protein were identified with tryptic peptides containing the following sequences: (formula; see text)     

Pro-opiomelanocortin-derived peptides in the testis: evidence for a possible role in Leydig and Sertoli cell function

Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)-derived peptides such as beta-endorphin, ACTH, and MSHs were identified in the testis where they were exclusively localized in Leydig cells. Examination of testicular extracts by a variety of physicochemical and immunological techniques indicates that the processing of the POMC in the testis is very similar to that in the brain. By using a cDNA probe, the POMC-like mRNA present in total testis and cultured Leydig cells was 150-200 bases shorter than that in the hypothalamus and pituitary. In addition, POMC mRNA was localized to Leydig cells using in situ hybridization. The expression of the POMC-like gene and the accumulation of POMC-derived peptides in Leydig cell were shown to be under the control of gonadotropin. As the testis contains low concentrations of POMC-derived peptides, we suggested that they may be implicated in local regulatory events within this organ. This postulate was supported by results from in vivo and in vitro experiments suggesting that different portions of the POMC-molecule may have opposite effects on Sertoli cell functions. For example, MSHs increased cAMP accumulation and aromatase activity in these cells, while opioids inhibited Sertoli cell proliferation and androgen binding protein (ABP) secretion. Furthermore, following intratesticular administration of opiate antagonists, testosterone production was reduced, suggesting that Leydig cell function may be also modulated by beta-endorphin and/or other related peptides. Taken together, these studies support the hypothesis of a possible role of POMC-derived peptides in testicular function.     

Amino acid sequences of helospectins, new members of the glucagon superfamily, found in Gila monster venom

The amino acid sequences of two closely related peptides from Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) venom are reported. Helospectin I is a 38-residue peptide, His-Ser-Asp-Ala-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ala-Glu-Tyr-Ser-Lys-Leu-Leu-Ala-Lys-Leu-Ala- Leu-Gln - Lys-Tyr-Leu-Glu-Ser-Ile-Leu-Gly-Ser-Ser-Thr-Ser-Pro-Arg-Pro-Pro-Ser-Ser, and helospectin II is a 37-residue peptide identical to helospectin I except that it lacks serine 38. Helospectins are pancreatic secretagogues with structures and bioactivities similar to vasoactive intestinal peptide and other members of the glucagon superfamily. The relative significance of helospectin-I and helospectin-II is presently unknown. Comparison of the 28 residues of vasoactive intestinal peptide with residues 1-28 of helospectin shows that identical amino acids occur in 15 positions. Since members of the glucagon superfamily have similar structures but different biological actions, it is possible that helospectin is more closely related to a mammalian peptide awaiting discovery.     

Sourness-suppressing peptides in cooked pork loins

This study was conducted to identify the sourness-suppressing peptides in cooked pork and to clarify the mechanism of sour taste suppression by the peptides. An extract prepared from pork loins vacuum-cooked at 60 degrees C for 6 hours after conditioning at 4 degrees C for 20 days was separated into three fractions: under MW 500 (Fraction I), MW 500-1,000 (Fraction II), and over MW 1,000 (Fraction III). The Fraction I content was largest. As judged by sensory evaluation, the addition of Fraction II was capable of suppressing stronger sourness than the other fractions. Fraction II also enhanced umami and saltiness. Three peptides (APPPPAEVHEVV, APPPPAEVHEVVE, and APPPPAEVHEVHEEVH) in Fraction II increased greatly during conditioning. A common peptide, APPPPAEVHEV, in the amino acid sequences of the three peptides suppressed the sour taste. The mechanism of sourness suppression by the peptide was concluded to comprise inhibition of the binding of sour taste substances to the membranes of the tongue.     

Dissection of H-2Db-restricted cytotoxic T-lymphocyte epitopes on simian virus 40 T antigen by the use of synthetic peptides and H-2Dbm mutants.

Five distinct cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) recognition sites were identified in the simian virus 40 (SV40) T antigen by using H-2b cells that express the truncated T antigen or antigens carrying internal deletions of various sizes. Four of the CTL recognition determinants, designated sites I, II, III, and V, are H-2Db restricted, while site IV is H-2Kb restricted. The boundaries of CTL recognition sites I, II, and III, clustered in the amino-terminal half of the T antigen, were further defined by use of overlapping synthetic peptides containing amino acid sequences previously determined to be required for recognition by T-antigen site-specific CTL clones by using SV40 deletion mutants. CTL clone Y-1, which recognizes epitope I and whose reactivity is affected by deletion of residues 193 to 211 of the T antigen, responded positively to B6/PY cells preincubated with a synthetic peptide corresponding to T-antigen amino acids 205 to 219. CTL clones Y-2 and Y-3 lysed B6/PY cells preincubated with large-T peptide LT220-233. To distinguish further between epitopes II and III, Y-2 and Y-3 CTL clones were reacted with SV40-transformed cells bearing mutations in the major histocompatibility complex class I antigen. Y-2 CTL clones lysed SV40-transformed H-2Dbm13 cells (bm13SV) which carry several amino acid substitutions in the putative antigen-binding site in the alpha 2 domain of the H-2Db antigen but not bm14SV cells, which contain a single amino acid substitution in the alpha 1 domain. Y-3 CTL clones lysed both mutant transformants. Y-1 and Y-5 CTL clones failed to lyse bm13SV and bm14SV cells; however, these cells could present synthetic peptide LT205-219 to CTL clone Y-1 and peptide SV26(489-503) to CTL clone Y-5, suggesting that the endogenously processed T antigen yields fragments of sizes or sequences different from those of synthetic peptides LT205-219 and SV26(489-503).     

A comparative study of the central effects of melanocortin peptides on food intake in broiler and layer chicks

Broiler chicks eat more food than layer chicks. However, the causes of the difference in food intake in the neonatal period between these strains are not clear. In this study, we examined the involvement of proopiomelanocortin (POMC)-derived melanocortin peptides α-, β- and γ-melanocyte-stimulating hormones (MSHs) in the difference in food intake between broiler and layer chicks. First, we compared the hypothalamic mRNA levels of POMC between these strains and found that there was no significant difference in these levels between broiler and layer chicks. Next, we examined the effects of central administration of MSHs on food intake in these strains. Central administration of α-MSH significantly suppressed food intake in both strains. Central administration of β-MSH significantly suppressed food intake in layer chicks, but not in broiler chicks, while central administration of γ-MSH did not influence food intake in either strain. It is therefore likely that the absence of the anorexigenic effect of β-MSH might be related to the increased food intake in broiler chicks.     

Small cytoplasmic domain peptides of natriuretic peptide receptor-C attenuate cell proliferation through Gialpha protein/MAP kinase/PI3-kinase/AKT pathways

The present studies were undertaken to investigate the effect of C-atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)(4-23) and several peptide fragments containing 12 amino acids from different regions of the cytoplasmic domain of natriuretic peptide receptor (NPR)-C on cell proliferation in the absence or presence of angiotensin (ANG) II, endothelin (ET)-1, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) in A-10 vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). The peptide fragments used have either complete G(i) activator sequences K(461)-H(472) (peptide 1) and H(481)-H(492) (peptide 3) or partial G(i) activator sequences R(469)-K(480) (peptide 2) and I(465)-H(472) (peptide Y) with truncated COOH or NH(2) terminus, respectively. The other peptide used had no structural specificity (Q(473)-K(480), peptide X) or was the scrambled peptide control for peptide 1 (peptide Z). ANG II, ET-1 and AVP significantly stimulated DNA synthesis in these cells as determined by [(3)H]thymidine incorporation that was inhibited by peptides 1, 2, and 3 and not by peptides X, Y, and Z in a concentration-dependent manner, with an apparent K(i) between 1 and 10 nM. In addition, C-ANP(4-23), which interacts with NPR-C, also inhibited DNA synthesis stimulated by vasoactive peptides; however, the inhibition elicited by C-ANP(4-23) was not additive with the inhibition elicited by peptide 1. On the other hand, basal DNA synthesis in these cells was not inhibited by C-ANP(4-23) or the peptide fragments. Furthermore, vasoactive peptide-induced stimulation of DNA synthesis was inhibited by PD-98059 and wortmannin, and this inhibition was potentiated by peptide 1. In addition, peptide 1 also inhibited vasoactive peptide-induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and AKT and enhanced expression of G(i)alpha proteins. These data suggest that C-ANP(4-23) and small peptide fragments containing 12 amino acids irrespective of the region of the cytoplasmic domain of NPR-C inhibit proliferative responses of vasoactive peptides through G(i)alpha protein and MAP kinase/phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT pathways.     

A POMC variant implicates beta-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in the control of human energy balance

The melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) plays a critical role in the control of energy balance. Of its two pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)-derived ligands, alpha- and beta-MSH, the majority of attention has focused on alpha-MSH, partly reflecting the absence of beta-MSH in rodents. We screened the POMC gene in 538 patients with severe, early-onset obesity and identified five unrelated probands who were heterozygous for a rare missense variant in the region encoding beta-MSH, Tyr221Cys. This frequency was significantly increased (p < 0.001) compared to the general UK Caucasian population and the variant cosegregated with obesity/overweight in affected family members. Compared to wild-type beta-MSH, the variant peptide was impaired in its ability to bind to and activate signaling from the MC4R. Obese children carrying the Tyr221Cys variant were hyperphagic and showed increased linear growth, both of which are features of MC4R deficiency. These studies support a role for beta-MSH in the control of human energy homeostasis.