Structure and Function of the Hetero-oligomeric Cysteine Synthase Complex in Plants

Cysteine synthesis in bacteria and plants is catalyzed by serine acetyltransferase (SAT) and O-acetylserine (thiol)-lyase (OAS-TL), which form the hetero-oligomeric cysteine synthase complex (CSC). In plants, but not in bacteria, the CSC is assumed to control cellular sulfur homeostasis by reversible association of the subunits. Application of size exclusion chromatography, analytical ultracentrifugation, and isothermal titration calorimetry revealed a hexameric structure of mitochondrial SAT from Arabidopsis thaliana (AtSATm) and a 2:1 ratio of the OAS-TL dimer to the SAT hexamer in the CSC. Comparable results were obtained for the composition of the cytosolic SAT from A. thaliana (AtSATc) and the cytosolic SAT from Glycine max (Glyma16g03080, GmSATc) and their corresponding CSCs. The hexameric SAT structure is also supported by the calculated binding energies between SAT trimers. The interaction sites of dimers of AtSATm trimers are identified using peptide arrays. A negative Gibbs free energy (ΔG = −33 kcal mol⁻¹) explains the spontaneous formation of the AtCSCs, whereas the measured SAT:OAS-TL affinity (K_D = 30 nm) is 10 times weaker than that of bacterial CSCs. Free SAT from bacteria is >100-fold more sensitive to feedback inhibition by cysteine than AtSATm/c. The sensitivity of plant SATs to cysteine is further decreased by CSC formation, whereas the feedback inhibition of bacterial SAT by cysteine is not affected by CSC formation. The data demonstrate highly similar quaternary structures of the CSCs from bacteria and plants but emphasize differences with respect to the affinity of CSC formation (K_D) and the regulation of cysteine sensitivity of SAT within the CSC.     

Functional analysis of the cysteine synthase protein complex from plants: structural, biochemical and regulatory properties

Cysteine synthesis in plants represents the final step of assimilatory sulfate reduction and the almost exclusive entry reaction of reduced sulfur into metabolism not only of plants, but also the human food chain in general. It is accomplished by the sequential reaction of two enzymes, serine acetyltransferase (SAT) and O-acetylserine (thiol) lyase (OAS-TL). Together they form the hetero-oligomeric cysteine synthase complex (CSC). Recent evidence is reviewed that identifies the dual function of the CSC as a sensor and as part of a regulatory circuit that controls cellular sulfur homeostasis. Computational modeling of three-dimensional structures of plant SAT and OAS-TL based on the crystal structure of the corresponding bacterial enzymes supports quaternary conformations of SAT as a dimer of trimers and OAS-TL as a homodimer. These findings suggest an overall alpha6beta4 structure of the subunits of the plant CSC. Kinetic measurements of CSC dissociation triggered by the reaction intermediate O-acetylserine as well as CSC stabilization by sulfide indicate quantitative reactions that are suited to fine-tune the equilibrium between free and associated CSC subunits. In addition, in vitro data show that SAT requires binding to OAS-TL for full activity, while at the same time bound OAS-TL becomes inactivated. Since OAS concentrations inside cells increase upon sulfate deficiency, whereas sulfide concentrations most likely decrease, these data suggest the dissociation of the CSC in vivo, accompanied by inactivation of SAT and activation of OAS-TL function in their free homo-oligomer states. Biochemical evidence describes this protein-interaction based mechanism as reversible, thus closing the regulatory circuit. The properties of the CSC and its subunits are therefore consistent with models of positive regulation of sulfate uptake and reduction in plants by OAS as well as a demand-driven repression/de-repression by a sulfur intermediate, such as sulfide.     

Dominant-negative modification reveals the regulatory function of the multimeric cysteine synthase protein complex in transgenic tobacco

Cys synthesis in plants constitutes the entry of reduced sulfur from assimilatory sulfate reduction into metabolism. The catalyzing enzymes serine acetyltransferase (SAT) and O-acetylserine (OAS) thiol lyase (OAS-TL) reversibly form the heterooligomeric Cys synthase complex (CSC). Dominant-negative mutation of the CSC showed the crucial function for the regulation of Cys biosynthesis in vivo. An Arabidopsis thaliana SAT was overexpressed in the cytosol of transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants in either enzymatically active or inactive forms that were both shown to interact efficiently with endogenous tobacco OAS-TL proteins. Active SAT expression resulted in a 40-fold increase in SAT activity and strong increases in the reaction intermediate OAS as well as Cys, glutathione, Met, and total sulfur contents. However, inactive SAT expression produced much greater enhancing effects, including 30-fold increased Cys levels, attributable, apparently, to the competition of inactive transgenic SAT with endogenous tobacco SAT for binding to OAS-TL. Expression levels of tobacco SAT and OAS-TL remained unaffected. Flux control coefficients suggested that the accumulation of OAS and Cys in both types of transgenic plants was accomplished by different mechanisms. These data provide evidence that the CSC and its subcellular compartmentation play a crucial role in the control of Cys biosynthesis, a unique function for a plant metabolic protein complex.     

Analysis of cytosolic and plastidic serine acetyltransferase mutants and subcellular metabolite distributions suggests interplay of the cellular compartments for cysteine biosynthesis in Arabidopsis

In plants, the enzymes for cysteine synthesis serine acetyltransferase (SAT) and O-acetylserine-(thiol)-lyase (OASTL) are present in the cytosol, plastids and mitochondria. However, it is still not clearly resolved to what extent the different compartments are involved in cysteine biosynthesis and how compartmentation influences the regulation of this biosynthetic pathway. To address these questions, we analysed Arabidopsis thaliana T-DNA insertion mutants for cytosolic and plastidic SAT isoforms. In addition, the subcellular distribution of enzyme activities and metabolite concentrations implicated in cysteine and glutathione biosynthesis were revealed by non-aqueous fractionation (NAF). We demonstrate that cytosolic SERAT1.1 and plastidic SERAT2.1 do not contribute to cysteine biosynthesis to a major extent, but may function to overcome transport limitations of O-acetylserine (OAS) from mitochondria. Substantiated by predominantly cytosolic cysteine pools, considerable amounts of sulphide and presence of OAS in the cytosol, our results suggest that the cytosol is the principal site for cysteine biosynthesis. Subcellular metabolite analysis further indicated efficient transport of cysteine, γ -glutamylcysteine and glutathione between the compartments. With respect to regulation of cysteine biosynthesis, estimation of subcellular OAS and sulphide concentrations established that OAS is limiting for cysteine biosynthesis and that SAT is mainly present bound in the cysteine–synthase complex.     

Mitochondrial serine acetyltransferase functions as a pacemaker of cysteine synthesis in plant cells

Cysteine (Cys) synthesis in plants is carried out by two sequential reactions catalyzed by the rate-limiting enzyme serine acetyltransferase (SAT) and excess amounts of O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase. Why these reactions occur in plastids, mitochondria, and cytosol of plants remained unclear. Expression of artificial microRNA (amiRNA) against Sat3 encoding mitochondrial SAT3 in transgenic Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants demonstrates that mitochondria are the most important compartment for the synthesis of O-acetylserine (OAS), the precursor of Cys. Reduction of RNA levels, protein contents, SAT enzymatic activity, and phenotype strongly correlate in independent amiSAT3 lines and cause significantly retarded growth. The expression of the other four Sat genes in the Arabidopsis genome are not affected by amiRNA-SAT3 according to quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and microarray analyses. Application of radiolabeled serine to leaf pieces revealed severely reduced incorporation rates into Cys and even more so into glutathione. Accordingly, steady-state levels of OAS are 4-fold reduced. Decrease of sulfate reduction-related genes is accompanied by an accumulation of sulfate in amiSAT3 lines. These results unequivocally show that mitochondria provide the bulk of OAS in the plant cell and are the likely site of flux regulation. Together with recent data, the cytosol appears to be a major site of Cys synthesis, while plastids contribute reduced sulfur as sulfide. Thus, Cys synthesis in plants is significantly different from that in nonphotosynthetic eukaryotes at the cellular level.     

Analysis of the Arabidopsis O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase gene family demonstrates compartment-specific differences in the regulation of cysteine synthesis

Cys synthesis in plants takes place in plastids, cytosol, and mitochondria. Why Cys synthesis is required in all compartments with autonomous protein biosynthesis and whether Cys is exchanged between them has remained enigmatic. This question was addressed using Arabidopsis thaliana T-DNA insertion lines deficient in the final step of Cys biosynthesis catalyzed by the enzyme O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase (OAS-TL). Null alleles of oastlA or oastlB alone showed that cytosolic OAS-TL A and plastid OAS-TL B were completely dispensable, although together they contributed 95% of total OAS-TL activity. An oastlAB double mutant, relying solely on mitochondrial OAS-TL C for Cys synthesis, showed 25% growth retardation. Although OAS-TL C alone was sufficient for full development, oastlC plants also showed retarded growth. Targeted affinity purification identified the major OAS-TL-like proteins. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry showed no compensatory changes of OAS-TL isoforms in the four mutants. Steady state concentrations of Cys and glutathione and pulse-chase labeling with [35S]sulfate indicated strong perturbation of primary sulfur metabolism. These data demonstrate that Cys and also sulfide must be sufficiently exchangeable between cytosol and organelles. Despite partial redundancy, the mitochondria and not the plastids play the most important role for Cys synthesis in Arabidopsis.     

Allosterically gated enzyme dynamics in the cysteine synthase complex regulate cysteine biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana

Plants and bacteria assimilate sulfur into cysteine. Cysteine biosynthesis involves a bienzyme complex, the cysteine synthase complex (CSC), which consists of serine-acetyl-transferase (SAT) and O-acetyl-serine-(thiol)-lyase (OAS-TL) enzymes. The activity of OAS-TL is reduced by formation of the CSC. Although this reduction is an inherent part of the self-regulation cycle of cysteine biosynthesis, there has until now been no explanation as to how OAS-TL loses activity in plants. Complexation of SAT and OAS-TL involves binding of the C-terminal tail of SAT in one of the active sites of the homodimeric OAS-TL. We here explore the flexibility of the unoccupied active site in Arabidopsis thaliana cytosolic and mitochondrial OAS-TLs. Our results reveal two gates in the OAS-TL active site that define its accessibility. The observed dynamics of the gates show allosteric closure of the unoccupied active site of OAS-TL in the CSC, which can hinder substrate binding, abolishing its turnover to cysteine.     

The relevance of compartmentation for cysteine synthesis in phototrophic organisms

In the vascular plant Arabidopsis thaliana, synthesis of cysteine and its precursors O-acetylserine and sulfide is distributed between the cytosol, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. This compartmentation contributes to regulation of cysteine synthesis. In contrast to Arabidopsis, cysteine synthesis is exclusively restricted to chloroplasts in the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Thus, the question arises, whether specification of compartmentation was driven by multicellularity and specified organs and tissues. The moss Physcomitrella patens colonizes land but is still characterized by a simple morphology compared to vascular plants. It was therefore used as model organism to study evolution of compartmented cysteine synthesis. The presence of O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase (OAS-TL) proteins, which catalyze the final step of cysteine synthesis, in different compartments was applied as criterion. Purification and characterization of native OAS-TL proteins demonstrated the presence of five OAS-TL protein species encoded by two genes in Physcomitrella. At least one of the gene products is dual targeted to plastids and cytosol, as shown by combination of GFP fusion localization studies, purification of chloroplasts, and identification of N termini from native proteins. The bulk of OAS-TL protein is targeted to plastids, whereas there is no evidence for a mitochondrial OAS-TL isoform and only a minor part of OAS-TL protein is localized in the cytosol. This demonstrates that subcellular diversification of cysteine synthesis is already initialized in Physcomitrella but appears to gain relevance later during evolution of vascular plants.     

Three-stage assembly of the cysteine synthase complex from Escherichia coli

Control of sulfur metabolism in plants and bacteria is linked, in significant measure, to the behavior of the cysteine synthase complex (CSC). The complex is comprised of the two enzymes that catalyze the final steps in cysteine biosynthesis: serine O-acetyltransferase (SAT, EC 2.3.1.30), which produces O-acetyl-L-serine, and O-acetyl-L-serine sulfhydrylase (OASS, EC 2.5.1.47), which converts it to cysteine. SAT (a dimer of homotrimers) binds a maximum of two molecules of OASS (a dimer) in an interaction believed to involve docking of the C terminus from a protomer in an SAT trimer into an OASS active site. This interaction inactivates OASS catalysis and prevents further binding to the trimer; thus, the system exhibits a contact-induced inactivation of half of each biomolecule. To better understand the dynamics and energetics that underlie formation of the CSC, the interactions of OASS and SAT from Escherichia coli were studied at equilibrium and in the pre-steady state. Using an experimental strategy that initiates dissociation of the CSC at different points in the CSC-forming reaction, three stable forms of the complex were identified. Comparison of the binding behaviors of SAT and its C-terminal peptide supports a mechanism in which SAT interacts with OASS in a non-allosteric interaction involving its C terminus. This early docking event appears to fasten the proteins in close proximity and thus prepares the system to engage in a series of subsequent, energetically favorable isomerizations that inactivate OASS and produce the fully isomerized CSC.     

The relevance of compartmentation for cysteine synthesis in phototrophic organisms

In the vascular plant Arabidopsis thaliana, synthesis of cysteine and its precursors O-acetylserine and sulfide is distributed between the cytosol, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. This compartmentation contributes to regulation of cysteine synthesis. In contrast to Arabidopsis, cysteine synthesis is exclusively restricted to chloroplasts in the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Thus, the question arises, whether specification of compartmentation was driven by multicellularity and specified organs and tissues. The moss Physcomitrella patens colonizes land but is still characterized by a simple morphology compared to vascular plants. It was therefore used as model organism to study evolution of compartmented cysteine synthesis. The presence of O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase (OAS-TL) proteins, which catalyze the final step of cysteine synthesis, in different compartments was applied as criterion. Purification and characterization of native OAS-TL proteins demonstrated the presence of five OAS-TL protein species encoded by two genes in Physcomitrella. At least one of the gene products is dual targeted to plastids and cytosol, as shown by combination of GFP fusion localization studies, purification of chloroplasts, and identification of N termini from native proteins. The bulk of OAS-TL protein is targeted to plastids, whereas there is no evidence for a mitochondrial OAS-TL isoform and only a minor part of OAS-TL protein is localized in the cytosol. This demonstrates that subcellular diversification of cysteine synthesis is already initialized in Physcomitrella but appears to gain relevance later during evolution of vascular plants.     

Cysteine biosynthesis, in concert with a novel mechanism, contributes to sulfide detoxification in mitochondria of Arabidopsis thaliana

In higher plants, biosynthesis of cysteine is catalysed by OAS-TL [O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase], which replaces the activated acetyl group of O-acetylserine with sulfide. The enzyme is present in cytosol, plastids and mitochondria of plant cells. The sole knockout of mitochondrial OAS-TL activity (oastlC) leads to significant reduction of growth in Arabidopsis thaliana. The reason for this phenotype is still enigmatic, since mitochondrial OAS-TL accounts only for approximately 5% of total OAS-TL activity. In the present study we demonstrate that sulfide specifically intoxicates Complex IV activity, but not electron transport through Complexes II and III in isolated mitochondria of oastlC plants. Loss of mitochondrial OAS-TL activity resulted in significant inhibition of dark respiration under certain developmental conditions. The abundance of mitochondrially encoded proteins and Fe-S cluster-containing proteins was not affected in oastlC. Furthermore, oastlC seedlings were insensitive to cyanide, which is detoxified by β-cyano-alanine synthase in mitochondria at the expense of cysteine. These results indicate that in situ biosynthesis of cysteine in mitochondria is not mandatory for translation, Fe-S cluster assembly and cyanide detoxification. Finally, we uncover an OAS-TL-independent detoxification system for sulfide in mitochondria of Arabidopsis that allows oastlC plants to cope with high sulfide levels caused by abiotic stresses.     

A mechanistic model of the cysteine synthase complex

Plants and bacteria assimilate and incorporate inorganic sulfur into organic compounds such as the amino acid cysteine. Cysteine biosynthesis involves a bienzyme complex, the cysteine synthase (CS) complex. The CS complex is composed of the enzymes serine acetyl transferase (SAT) and O-acetyl-serine-(thiol)-lyase (OAS-TL). Although it is experimentally known that formation of the CS complex influences cysteine production, the exact biological function of the CS complex, the mechanism of reciprocal regulation of the constituent enzymes and the structure of the complex are still poorly understood. Here, we used docking techniques to construct a model of the CS complex from mitochondrial Arabidopsis thaliana. The three-dimensional structures of the enzymes were modeled by comparative techniques. The C-termini of SAT, missing in the template structures but crucial for CS formation, were modeled de novo. Diffusional encounter complexes of SAT and OAS-TL were generated by rigid-body Brownian dynamics simulation. By incorporating experimental constraints during Brownian dynamics simulation, we identified complexes consistent with experiments. Selected encounter complexes were refined by molecular dynamics simulation to generate structures of bound complexes. We found that although a stoichiometric ratio of six OAS-TL dimers to one SAT hexamer in the CS complex is geometrically possible, binding energy calculations suggest that, consistent with experiments, a ratio of only two OAS-TL dimers to one SAT hexamer is more likely. Computational mutagenesis of residues in OAS-TL that are experimentally significant for CS formation hindered the association of the enzymes due to a less-favorable electrostatic binding free energy. Since the enzymes from A. thaliana were expressed in Escherichia coli, the cross-species binding of SAT and OAS-TL from E. coli and A. thaliana was explored. The results showed that reduced cysteine production might be due to a cross-binding of A. thaliana OAS-TL with E. coli SAT. The proposed models of the enzymes and their complexes provide mechanistic insights into CS complexation.     

O-acetylserine (thiol) lyase: an enigmatic enzyme of plant cysteine biosynthesis revisited in Arabidopsis thaliana

The synthesis of cysteine is positioned at a decisive stage of assimilatory sulphate reduction, marking the fixation of inorganic sulphide into a carbon skeleton. O-acetylserine (thiol) lyase (OAS-TL) catalyses the reaction of inorganic sulphide with O-acetylserine (OAS). Despite its prominent position in the pathway OAS-TL is generally regarded as a non-limiting enzyme without regulatory function, due to low substrate affinities and semi-constitutive expression patterns. To resolve this apparent contradiction, the kinetic properties of three OAS-TLs from Arabidopsis thaliana, localized in the cytosol (A), plastids (B), and mitochondria (C), were analysed. The recombinant expressed OAS-TLs were purified to apparent homogeneity without any fusion tag to maintain their native forms. The proteins displayed high specific activities of 550-900 micromol min(-1) mg(-1). Using an improved and highly sensitive assay method for cysteine determination, the apparent K(m)(sulphide) was 3-6 microM for OAS-TL A, B, and C and thus 10-100 times lower than previously reported for plant OAS-TLs. K(m)(OAS) was between 310 microM and 690 microM for OAS-TL isoform A, B, and C, whereas the apparent dissociation binding constant for OAS was much lower (K(d)<1 microM OAS). A HPLC method was developed for OAS quantification that revealed fast increases of the cellular OAS concentration in response to sulphate deprivation. The observed fluctuations of intracellular OAS concentrations, combined with the OAS dissociation constant and the catalytic properties of OAS-TL, support the model of a dynamic cysteine synthesis system with regulatory function as can be expected from the position of the reaction in the sulphur assimilation pathway.     

Overproduction of SAT and/or OASTL in transgenic plants: a survey of effects

The last steps of cysteine biosynthesis are catalysed by a bi-enzyme complex composed of serine acetyltransferase (SAT) and cysteine synthase, also called O-acetyl-serine (thiol) lyase (OASTL). SAT is responsible for the production of O-acetyl-serine (OAS) from serine and acetyl-coenzyme A, while OASTL catalyses the formation of cysteine from OAS and hydrogen sulphide. Several distinct nuclear genes for SAT and OASTL enzymes exist in plants. Products of these genes are targeted into at least three cellular compartments: cytosol, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. The SAT and OASTL enzymes are strongly evolutionary conserved, both structurally and functionally. Therefore, isoenzymes from various cellular compartments can be substituted, not only by their plant counterparts from the other cellular compartments but also by their bacterial homologues. During the last decade transgenic plants overproducing SAT, OASTL or both enzymes simultaneously were obtained independently by several research groups. These manipulations led not only to the elevated levels of the respective products, namely OAS and cysteine, but also to increased amounts of glutathione and changes in the levels of other metabolites and enzymatic activities. In several cases, the transgenic plants were also shown to be less susceptible to applied abiotic stresses. In this review, all published and some unpublished results from this laboratory related to heterologous overproduction of SAT and OASTL in transgenic plants are discussed and summarized.     

Genomic and functional characterization of the oas gene family encoding O-acetylserine (thiol) lyases, enzymes catalyzing the final step in cysteine biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana

The final step of cysteine biosynthesis in plants is catalyzed by O-acetylserine (thiol) lyase (OAS-TL), which occurs as several isoforms found in the cytosol, the plastids and the mitochondria. Genomic DNA blot hybridization and isolation of genomic clones indicate single copy genes (oasA1, oasA2, oasB and oasC) that encode the activities of OAS-TL A, B and C found in separate subcellular compartments in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Sequence analysis reveals that the newly discovered oasA2 gene represents a pseudogene that is still transcribed, but is not functionally translated. The comparison of gene structures suggests that oasA1/oasA2 and oasB/oasC are closely related and may be derived from a common ancestor by subsequent duplications. OAS-TL A, B and C were overexpressed in an Escherichia coli mutant lacking cysteine synthesis and exhibited bifunctional OAS-TL and beta-cyanoalanine synthase (CAS) activities. However, all three proteins represent true OAS-TLs according to kinetic analysis and are unlikely to function in cyanide detoxification or secondary metabolism. In addition, it was demonstrated that the mitochondrial OAS-TL C exhibits in vivo protein-protein interaction capabilities with respect to cysteine synthase complex formation similar to cytosolic OAS-TL A and plastid OAS-TL B. Multiple database accessions for each of the A. thaliana OAS-TL isoforms can thus be attributed to a specified number of oas genes to which functionally defined gene products are assigned, and which are responsible for compartment-specific cysteine synthesis.     

Molecular and biochemical analysis of the enzymes of cysteine biosynthesis in the plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis thaliana</Emphasis>

Summary. Among the amino acids produced by plants cysteine plays a special role as a mediator between assimilatory sulfate reduction and provision of reduced sulfur for cell metabolism. Part of this characteristic feature is the presence of cysteine synthesis in plastids, mitochondria and cytosol. Plants are the major source of reduced sulfur for human and animal nutrition. Cysteine biosynthesis deserves special attention, since reduced sulfur is channelled from cysteine into many sulfur-containing compounds in food and feed. Recent investigations are reviewed that focus on structure and regulation of cysteine synthesis in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. These data indicate that cysteine synthesis is not just an intermediate reaction step but that it is part of a regulatory network that mediates between inorganic sulfur supply and the demand for reduced sulfur during plant growth and in response to environmental changes. Received December 3, 2001 Accepted December 21, 2001     

Molecular and biochemical analysis of serine acetyltransferase and cysteine synthase towards sulfur metabolic engineering in plants

Summary. Serine acetyltransferase (SATase) and cysteine synthase (O-acetylserine (thiol)-lyase) (CSase) are committed in the final step of cysteine biosynthesis. Six cDNA clones encoding SATase have been isolated from several plants, e.g. watermelon, spinach, Chinese chive and Arabidopsis thaliana. Feedback-inhibition pattern and subcellular localization of plant SATases were evaluated. Two types of SATase that differ in their sensitivity to the feedback inhibition by l-cysteine were found in plants. In Arabidopsis, cytosolic SATase was inhibited by l-cysteine at a physiological concentration in an allosteric manner, but the plastidic and mitochondrial forms were not subjected to this feedback regulation. These results suggest that the regulation of cysteine biosynthesis through feedback inhibition may differ depending on the subcellular compartment. The allosteric domain responsible for l-cysteine inhibition was characterized, using several SATase mutants. The single change of amino acid residue, glycine-277 to cysteine, in the C-terminal region of watermelon SATase caused a significant decrease of the feedback-inhibition sensitivity of watermelon SATase. We made the transgenic Arabidopsis overexpressing point-mutated watermelon SATase gene whose product was not inhibited by l-cysteine. The contents of OAS, cysteine, and glutathione in transgenic Arabidopsis were significantly increased as compared to the wild-type Arabidopsis. Transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) (F₁) plants with enhanced CSase activities both in the cytosol and in the chloroplasts were generated by cross-fertilization of two transgenic tobacco expressing either cytosolic CSase or chloroplastic CSase. Upon fumigation with 0.1 μL L⁻¹ sulfur dioxide, both the cysteine and glutathione contents in leaves of F₁ plants were increased significantly, but not in leaves of non-transformed control plants. These results indicated that both SATase and CSase play important roles in cysteine biosynthesis and its regulation in plants. Received November 27, 2001 Accepted December 21, 2001     

Crystal structure of serine acetyl transferase from Brucella abortus and its complex with coenzyme A

Brucella abortus is the major cause of premature foetal abortion in cattle, can be transmitted from cattle to humans, and is considered a powerful biological weapon. De novo cysteine biosynthesis is one of the essential pathways reported in bacteria, protozoa, and plants. Serine acetyltransferase (SAT) initiates this reaction by catalyzing the formation of O-acetylserine (OAS) using l-serine and acetyl coenzyme A as substrates. Here we report kinetic and crystallographic studies of this enzyme from B. abortus. The kinetic studies indicate that cysteine competitively inhibits the binding of serine to B. abortus SAT (BaSAT) and noncompetitively inhibits the binding of acetyl coenzyme A. The crystal structures of BaSAT in its apo state and in complex with coenzyme A (CoA) were determined to 1.96 Å and 1.87 Å resolution, respectively. BaSAT was observed as a trimer in a size exclusion column; however, it was seen as a hexamer in dynamic light scattering (DLS) studies and in the crystal structure, indicating it may exist in both states. The complex structure shows coenzyme A bound to the C-terminal region, making mostly hydrophobic contacts from the center of the active site extending up to the surface of the protein. There is no conformational difference in the enzyme between the apo and the complexed states, indicating lock and key binding and the absence of an induced fit mechanism.