Human–Cougar interactions in the wildland–urban interface of Colorado's front range

As human populations continue to expand across the world, the need to understand and manage wildlife populations within the wildland – urban interface is becoming commonplace. This is especially true for large carnivores as these species are not always tolerated by the public and can pose a risk to human safety. Unfortunately, information on wildlife species within the wildland – urban interface is sparse, and knowledge from wildland ecosystems does not always translate well to human‐dominated systems. Across western North America, cougars (Puma concolor) are routinely utilizing wildland – urban habitats while human use of these areas for homes and recreation is increasing. From 2007 to 2015, we studied cougar resource selection, human–cougar interaction, and cougar conflict management within the wildland – urban landscape of the northern Front Range in Colorado, USA. Resource selection of cougars within this landscape was typical of cougars in more remote settings but cougar interactions with humans tended to occur in locations cougars typically selected against, especially those in proximity to human structures. Within higher housing density areas, 83% of cougar use occurred at night, suggesting cougars generally avoided human activity by partitioning time. Only 24% of monitored cougars were reported for some type of conflict behavior but 39% of cougars sampled during feeding site investigations of GPS collar data were found to consume domestic prey items. Aversive conditioning was difficult to implement and generally ineffective for altering cougar behaviors but was thought to potentially have long‐term benefits of reinforcing fear of humans in cougars within human‐dominated areas experiencing little cougar hunting pressure. Cougars are able to exploit wildland – urban landscapes effectively, and conflict is relatively uncommon compared with the proportion of cougar use. Individual characteristics and behaviors of cougars within these areas are highly varied; therefore, conflict management is unique to each situation and should target individual behaviors. The ability of individual cougars to learn to exploit these environments with minimal human–cougar interactions suggests that maintaining older age structures, especially females, and providing a matrix of habitats, including large connected open‐space areas, would be beneficial to cougars and effectively reduce the potential for conflict.     

Cougar survival and source-sink structure on Greater Yellowstone's Northern Range

We studied survival and causes of mortality of radiocollared cougars (Puma concolor) on the Greater Yellowstone Northern Range (GYNR) prior to (1987–1994) and after wolf (Canis lupus) reintroduction (1998–2005) and evaluated temporal, spatial, and environmental factors that explain variation in adult, subadult, and kitten survival. Using Program MARK and multimodel inference, we modeled cougar survival based on demographic status, season, and landscape attributes. Our best models for adult and independent subadults indicated that females survived better than males and survival increased with age until cougars reached older ages. Lower elevations and increasing density of roads, particularly in areas open to cougar hunting north of Yellowstone National Park (YNP), increased mortality risks for cougars on the GYNR. Indices of ungulate biomass, cougar and wolf population size, winter severity, rainfall, and individual characteristics such as the presence of dependent young, age class, and use of Park or Wilderness were not important predictors of survival. Kitten survival increased with age, was lower during winter, increased with increasing minimum estimates of elk calf biomass, and increased with increasing density of adult male cougars. Using our best model, we mapped adult cougar survival on the GYNR landscape. Results of receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis indicated a good model fit for both female (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.81, 95%CI = 0.70–0.92, n = 35 locations) and male cougars (AUC = 0.84, 95%CI = 0.74–0.94, n = 49 locations) relative to hunter harvest locations in our study area. Using minimum estimates of survival necessary to sustain the study population, we developed a source-sink surface and we identify several measures that resource management agencies can take to enhance cougar population management based on a source-sink strategy. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Urban coyotes select cryptic den sites near human development where conflict rates increase

The establishment of coyote (Canis latrans) populations in urban areas across North America has been accompanied by increased rates of human–coyote conflict. One factor thought to promote physical conflict between coyotes and people or pets is the presence of coyote pups near natal dens; however, this idea has not been tested, and no multivariate study of den selection within cities has occurred. Our objectives were to conduct a multivariate analysis of third- (i.e., home range) and fourth-order (i.e., den sites) habitat selection at dens and determine whether proximity to dens is associated with reports of physical conflict with coyotes. We found 120 dens by following coyote trails using snow tracking within urban green spaces that comprise presumed high-quality habitat for coyotes in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. We used resource selection functions to assess habitat selection for dens, testing variables related to land cover and anthropogenic features at the third order, and testing microsite habitat features via paired sites at the fourth order. We defined conflict encounters from comments in a community reporting database and used general linear models to assess their spatial proximity to the nearest den and prevalence during the pup-rearing period compared to the rest of the year. Habitat selection was strongest at the fourth order, wherein coyotes selected for abundant hiding cover, steep slopes, and eastern exposure. The prevalence of physical conflict with coyotes increased during the pup-rearing period. Conflict also increased near known dens as an overall effect and when reports occurred outside of naturalized urban areas. These results suggest that coyotes in Edmonton den in green spaces near human development in microsites that minimize detection by people via steep slopes and dense vegetation. We suggest urban wildlife managers increase public safety education about recognition of coyote denning habitat and coyote defensive behaviors, especially outside of naturalized urban areas, because of the observed increase in physical conflict near dens.     

Seasonal Foraging Ecology of Non-Migratory Cougars in a System with Migrating Prey

We tested for seasonal differences in cougar (Puma concolor) foraging behaviors in the Southern Yellowstone Ecosystem, a multi-prey system in which ungulate prey migrate, and cougars do not. We recorded 411 winter prey and 239 summer prey killed by 28 female and 10 male cougars, and an additional 37 prey items by unmarked cougars. Deer composed 42.4% of summer cougar diets but only 7.2% of winter diets. Males and females, however, selected different proportions of different prey; male cougars selected more elk (Cervus elaphus) and moose (Alces alces) than females, while females killed greater proportions of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and small prey than males. Kill rates did not vary by season or between males and females. In winter, cougars were more likely to kill prey on the landscape as: 1) elevation decreased, 2) distance to edge habitat decreased, 3) distance to large bodies of water decreased, and 4) steepness increased, whereas in summer, cougars were more likely to kill in areas as: 1) elevation decreased, 2) distance to edge habitat decreased, and 3) distance from large bodies of water increased. Our work highlighted that seasonal prey selection exhibited by stationary carnivores in systems with migratory prey is not only driven by changing prey vulnerability, but also by changing prey abundances. Elk and deer migrations may also be sustaining stationary cougar populations and creating apparent competition scenarios that result in higher predation rates on migratory bighorn sheep in winter and pronghorn in summer. Nevertheless, cougar predation on rare ungulates also appeared to be influenced by individual prey selection.     

INFLUENCE OF VEGETATION,TOPOGRAPHY, AND ROADS ON COUGAR MOVEMENT IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

Abstract: Models of individual movement can help conserve wide-ranging carnivores on increasingly human-altered landscapes, and cannot be constructed solely by analyzing the daytime resting locations typically collected in carnivore studies. We examined the movements of 10 female and 7 male cougars (Puma concolor) at 15-min intervals during 44 nocturnal or diel periods of hunting or traveling in the Santa Ana Mountain Range of southern California, USA, between 1988 and 1992. Cougars tended to move in a meandering path (mean turning angle ∼54°), and distance moved (mean and mode ∼300 m) was not correlated with turning angle. Cougars used a broader range of habitats for nocturnal or diel movements than for previously described daybed locations for this same population. Riparian vegetation ranked highest in a compositional analysis of vegetation types selected during movement; grassland, woodland and urbanized sites were least selected. During periods of stasis (we presume many of these were stalking locations), patterns of selection were less marked. Cougars spent a disproportionate amount of time in highly ranked vegetation types, and traveled slowest through riparian habitats and fastest through human-dominated areas. Our results suggest that travel speed may provide an efficient index of habitat selection in concert with other types of analysis. Hunting or traveling individuals consistently used travel paths that were less rugged than their general surroundings. Traveling cougars avoided 2-lane paved roads, but dirt roads may have facilitated movement. Maintenance and restoration of corridors between large wildlands is essential to conserving cougars in southern California. Our results indicate that riparian vegetation, and other vegetation types that provide horizontal cover, are desirable features in such corridors, that dirt roads should not impede cougar use of corridors, and that corridors should lie along routes with relatively gentle topography. Our results suggest that cougars do not key in on highway-crossing structures in a way that creates a prey trap. Our empirical frequency distributions of distances and turning angles, along with cougar responses to vegetation, topography, and roads can help parameterize an individually-based movement model for cougars in human-altered landscapes.     

Recolonizing carnivores: Is cougar predation behaviorally mediated by bears?

Conservation and management efforts have resulted in population increases and range expansions for some apex predators, potentially changing trophic cascades and foraging behavior. Changes in sympatric carnivore and dominant scavenger populations provide opportunities to assess how carnivores affect one another. Cougars (Puma concolor) were the apex predator in the Great Basin of Nevada, USA, for over 80 years. Black bears (Ursus americanus) have recently recolonized the area and are known to heavily scavenge on cougar kills. To evaluate the impacts of sympatric, recolonizing bears on cougar foraging behavior in the Great Basin, we investigated kill sites of 31 cougars between 2009 and 2017 across a range of bear densities. We modeled the variation in feeding bout duration (number of nights spent feeding on a prey item) and the proportion of primary prey, mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), in cougar diets using mixed‐effects models. We found that feeding bout duration was driven primarily by the size of the prey item being consumed, local bear density, and the presence of dependent kittens. The proportion of mule deer in cougar diet across all study areas declined over time, was lower for male cougars, increased with the presence of dependent kittens, and increased with higher bear densities. In sites with feral horses (Equus ferus), a novel large prey, cougar consumption of feral horses increased over time. Our results suggest that higher bear densities over time may reduce cougar feeding bout durations and influence the prey selection trade‐off for cougars when alternative, but more dangerous, large prey are available. Shifts in foraging behavior in multicarnivore systems can have cascading effects on prey selection. This study highlights the importance of measuring the impacts of sympatric apex predators and dominant scavengers on a shared resource base, providing a foundation for monitoring dynamic multipredator/scavenger systems.     

Assessing temporal genetic variation in a cougar population: influence of harvest and neighboring populations

The geography of the Black Hills region of South Dakota and Wyoming may limit connectivity for many species. For species with large energetic demands and large home ranges or species at low densities this can create viability concerns. Carnivores in this region, such as cougars (Puma concolor), have the additive effect of natural and human-induced mortality; this may act to decrease long-term viability. In this study we set out to explore genetic diversity among cougar populations in the Black Hills and surrounding areas. Specifically, our objectives were to first compare genetic variation and effective number of breeders of cougars in the Black Hills during three harvest regimes: pre (2003–2006), moderate (2007–2010), and heavy (2011–2013), to determine if harvest impacted genetic variation. Second, we compared genetic structure of the Black Hills cougar population with cougar populations in neighboring eastern Wyoming and North Dakota. Using 20 microsatellite loci, we conducted genetic analysis on DNA samples from cougars in the Black Hills (n = 675), North Dakota (n = 113), and eastern Wyoming (n = 62) collected from 2001–2013. Here we report that the Black Hills cougar population maintained genetic variation over the three time periods. Our substructure analysis suggests that the maintenance of genetic variation was due to immigration from eastern Wyoming and possibly North Dakota.     

A Multiscale Assessment of Den Selection by Black Bears in Louisiana

ABSTRACT Understanding den selection for the federally threatened Louisiana black bear (Ursus americanus luteolus) will assist managers in effectively managing bear populations and the landscapes they inhabit. We assessed den selection of 72 female Louisiana black bears at multiple spatial scales in northern and central Louisiana, USA. We used 230 den-years to examine den type preference, microhabitat characteristics of dens, and effects of landscape characteristics on den selection. We also evaluated reuse of tree dens and their availability across several study areas. Bears selected tree dens more frequently (65%) than ground dens. Most (55%) ground dens were associated with standing or downed trees, and most tree dens were in baldcypress (Taxodium distichum; 86%) or surrounded by water (80%). Selection of ground dens was positively associated with landscape metrics related to presence of water, whereas selection of tree dens was positively associated with proximity to edge and greater proportions of swamp and areas containing water. Reuse of tree dens averaged 15% (range = 0–20%) across study areas and our estimates of tree-den availability indicated that tree dens were not a limiting resource for Louisiana black bears in the northern or central portions of Louisiana. Although Louisiana black bears demonstrated plasticity in den selection, we recommend managers use forest management practices that conserve appropriate tree dens and create ground-denning opportunities, because both would promote the recovery of Louisiana black bear populations.     

Scavenging Makes Cougars Susceptible to Snaring at Wolf Bait Stations

Abstract: In western Canada it is illegal to trap or snare cougars (Puma concolor), but cougars are sometimes caught accidentally in snares placed near carrion baits, a technique commonly used by trappers to harvest wolves (Canis lupus). We studied cougar foraging ecology and survival in west-central Alberta to estimate the propensity for cougars to scavenge, their susceptibility to snaring at trapper bait stations, and the implications these have for managing cougar populations. During 2005–2008, we used data from visits to 3,407 Global Positioning System (GPS) location clusters and >400 km of snow tracking of 44 cougars to locate foraging events and calculate scavenging rates. We identified 83 instances of scavenging, and 64% of monitored cougars scavenged at least once. Scavenging rates were higher in winter (0.12 events/week) than in summer (0.04 events/week), reflecting seasonal variation in carrion availability. Individual cougars scavenged at different rates, and winter feeding on carrion occupied up to 50% of total carcass handling time for some cougars. Based on these results we conclude that cougars are facultative scavengers. A propensity to scavenge made cougars susceptible to snaring causing high annual mortality in radiocollared cougars (0.11, 95% CI = 0.03–0.21). Provincial cougar mortality data demonstrate that snaring has increased dramatically as a mortality source in Alberta over the last 2 decades. Mortalities of radiocollared cougars during our study were 100% human caused and the addition of snaring mortality to already high hunting mortality resulted in low annual survival (0.67, 95% CI = 0.53–0.81). Our study is one of the first to identify population-level consequences for nontarget animals killed unintentionally by indiscriminate harvest techniques in a terrestrial ecosystem. Maintaining sustainable cougar harvest where snaring at carrion baits is permitted may require flexible hunting quotas capable of accommodating high cougar snaring mortalities in some years.     

Habitat Capacity for Cougar Recolonization in the Upper Great Lakes Region

Background

Recent findings indicate that cougars (Puma concolor) are expanding their range into the midwestern United States. Confirmed reports of cougar in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin have increased dramatically in frequency during the last five years, leading to speculation that cougars may re-establish in the Upper Great Lakes (UGL) region, USA. Recent work showed favorable cougar habitat in northeastern Minnesota, suggesting that the northern forested regions of Michigan and Wisconsin may have similar potential. Recolonization of cougars in the UGL states would have important ecological, social, and political impacts that will require effective management.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), we extended a cougar habitat model to Michigan and Wisconsin and incorporated primary prey densities to estimate the capacity of the region to support cougars. Results suggest that approximately 39% (>58,000 km²) of the study area could support cougars, and that there is potential for a population of approximately 500 or more animals. An exploratory validation of this habitat model revealed strong association with 58 verified cougar locations occurring in the study area between 2008 and 2013.

Conclusions/Significance

Spatially explicit information derived from this study could potentially lead to estimation of a viable population, delineation of possible cougar-human conflict areas, and the targeting of site locations for current monitoring. Understanding predator-prey interactions, interspecific competition, and human-wildlife relationships is becoming increasingly critical as top carnivores continue to recolonize the UGL region.     

Long-Term Evaluation of Cougar Density and Application of Risk Analysis for Harvest Management

Estimates of cougar (Puma concolor) density are among the least available of any big game species in North America because of monetary and logistical challenges. Thus, wildlife managers identify cougar density estimates as a high priority need for population estimation, developing harvest guidelines, and evaluating management objectives. Cougar densities range from <1 to almost 7 cougars/100 km²; however, the magnitude of spatial and temporal variation associated with these estimates is difficult to assess because this range of densities could potentially be reported for any given population using different demographic, temporal, durational, and analytical approaches. We used long-term global positioning system (GPS) data from collared cougars across 5 diverse study areas in Washington, USA, as the basis for calculating multiple annual independent-aged (≥18 months) cougar densities, using consistent methods, and conducted a meta-analysis to assist with statewide harvest guidelines. To generate specific harvest guidelines for unobserved populations at the management unit scale, we employed a Bayesian decision-theoretic approach that minimizes statistical risk of failing to achieve a defined harvest rate. For the 16-year field effort, we calculated 24 annual densities for independent-aged cougars. Average annual densities ranged from 1.55 ± 0.44 (SD) cougars/100 km² (n = 5 years) to 2.79 ± 0.35 cougars/100 km² (n = 5 years) among the 5 study areas. Explicit delineation of the cougar population demonstrated that contribution to density can vary considerably by sex and age class. Application of a 12–16% harvest rate within the risk analysis framework yielded a potential annual harvest of 249 cougars over 91,000 km² of cougar habitat in Washington. Given the importance of density for establishing harvest guidelines, and the degree of uncertainty in projecting derived densities to future years and unstudied management units, our approach may lessen the ambiguity of extrapolations and increase the longevity of research results. Our risk analysis can be used for a diverse array of species and management objectives and be incorporated into an adaptive management framework for minimizing management risk. Our recommendations can improve standardization in reporting and interpretation of cougar density comparisons and bring clarity to the sources of variability observed in cougar populations. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.     

Quantifying the influence of topographic position on cougar (Puma concolor) movement in southern California, USA

Large carnivores are frequently used as focal species for landscape-level planning and conservation purposes. Information on cougars Puma concolor , for example, is being used to predict movement corridors and linkage areas in habitats influenced by rapid urbanization. However, animal movement through habitat terrain is a function of multiple factors, including complex topographic features. To assess the use of topographic position during movements by cougars in the Santa Ana Mountain Range of southern California, we analyzed the travel paths of 10–17 radio-tagged individuals monitored during 44 overnight sessions. We examined selection for canyon bottom, gentle slope, steep slope and ridgeline topography at the scale of the movement session and at the scale of the home range. At both scales of selection, our results suggest that traveling or hunting cougars discriminated in their use of topographic position, that canyon bottoms and gentle slopes (<6°) ranked highest in compositional analyses of selection, and that these patterns were not highly confounded by the presence of preferred vegetation types. Ridgelines were used significantly less often than other positions. Our novel method of quantifying availability and use of topographic positions permits the assessment of terrain features, such as canyon bottoms, in facilitating cougar movements. For complex landscapes, models of animal movement should consider the topographic context that motivates patterns of habitat use, and should be developed using data obtained and analyzed at the appropriate spatial and temporal scales.     

Comparative Patterns of Predation by Cougars and Recolonizing Wolves in Montana's Madison Range

Abstract: Numerous studies have documented how prey may use antipredator strategies to reduce the risk of predation from a single predator. However, when a recolonizing predator enters an already complex predator—prey system, specific antipredator behaviors may conflict and avoidance of one predator may enhance vulnerability to another. We studied the patterns of prey selection by recolonizing wolves (Canis lupus) and cougars (Puma concolor) in response to prey resource selection in the northern Madison Range, Montana, USA. Elk (Cervus elaphus) were the primary prey for wolves, and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were the primary prey for cougars, but elk made up an increasingly greater proportion of cougar kills annually. Although both predators preyed disproportionately on male elk, wolves were most likely to prey on males in poor physical condition. Although we found that the predators partitioned hunting habitats, structural complexity at wolf kill sites increased over time, whereas complexity of cougar kill sites decreased. We concluded that shifts by prey to structurally complex refugia were attempts by formerly naïve prey to lessen predation risk from wolves; nevertheless, shifting to more structurally complex refugia might have made prey more vulnerable to cougars. After a change in predator exposure, use of refugia may represent a compromise to minimize overall risk. As agencies formulate management strategies relative to wolf recolonization, the potential for interactive predation effects (i.e., facilitation or antagonism) should be considered.     

Black Bears Select Large Woody Structures for Dens in Southeast Alaska

Timber interests target coastal temperate rainforests, and within them stands composed of large trees potentially selected by American black bears (Ursus americanus) for denning. We identified the location of 75 black bear dens (used ≥14 days) in an intensively logged area on Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, USA. We ground-visited a subset (n = 43) of these sites to measure the diameter of living trees and woody structures used by black bears for denning. We contrasted dens with random trees available in the study area in a series of models to characterize black bear den selection. All but 1 of 43 ground-visited dens were located within woody structures, and all but 2 of these structures were >1 m diameter at breast height (dbh). We built resource selection functions (RSFs) to investigate black bear den selection across a range of spatial scales, though estimated selection was generally scale invariant. Black bears strongly selected large-diameter woody structures (dead or alive) as dens at the home-range scale, with the estimated relative strength of selection (RSS) for a 2-m-diameter tree approximately 166 times that of a 1-m-diameter tree. The estimated RSS of logged forest was unexpectedly greater (2.75 times) than that of the remaining commercially valuable old-growth forest. Selection for den structures within stumps in previously logged stands suggests features of the woody structure may be of greater importance to black bears selecting dens than attributes of the surrounding forest. There was no observed correlation between bear den selection and second-growth age, indicating that stumps may persist as suitable dens well after logging. Because denning is an important part of their life history and the denning structures used by black bears on Prince of Wales Island will eventually decay, retaining habitat value for bears in areas intensively managed for timber harvest requires strategies to recruit very large, old trees throughout the landscape. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.     

Cougars are recolonizing the midwest: Analysis of cougar confirmations during 1990–2008

Although cougars (Puma concolor) were extirpated from much of midwestern North America around 1900, hard evidence of cougar presence has increased and populations have become established in the upper portions of the Midwest during the past 20 years. Recent occurrences of cougars in the Midwest are likely due to dispersal of subadult cougars into the region from established western populations, and may be indicative of further recolonization and range expansion. We compiled confirmed locations of cougars (i.e., via carcasses, tracks, photos, video, and DNA evidence) collected during 1990–2008 in 14 states and provinces of midwestern North America. We separated our study area into 2 regions (east and west), calculated number and types of confirmations, and assessed trends in confirmations during the study period. We recorded 178 cougar confirmations in the Midwest and the number of confirmations increased during the study period (r = 0.79, P ≤ 0.001). Confirmations by state or province ranged from 1 (Kansas, Michigan, and Ontario) to 67 (Nebraska). Carcasses were the most prevalent confirmation type (n = 56). Seventy-six percent of known-sex carcass confirmations were males, consistent with predominantly male-biased dispersal in cougars. More confirmations (P = 0.05) were recorded in the western region than the eastern region . Seventy-nine percent of cougar confirmations occurred within 50 km of highly suitable habitat (i.e., forest areas with steep terrain and low road and human densities). Given the number of cougar confirmations, the increasing frequency of occurrences, and that long-distance dispersal has been documented via radiocollared individuals, our research suggests that cougars are continuing to recolonize midwestern North America. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Assessing differential prey selection patterns between two sympatric large carnivores

Several conceptual models describing patterns of prey selection by predators have been proposed, but such models rarely have been tested empirically, particularly with terrestrial carnivores. We examined patterns of prey selection by sympatric wolves ( Canis lupus ) and cougars ( Puma concolor ) to determine i) if both predators selected disadvantaged prey disproportionately from the prey population, and ii) if the specific nature and intensity of prey selection differed according to disparity in hunting behavior between predator species. We documented prey characteristics and kill site attributes of predator kills during winters 1999–2001 in Idaho, and located 120 wolf-killed and 98 cougar-killed ungulates on our study site. Elk ( Cervus elephus ) were the primary prey for both predators, followed by mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ). Both predators preyed disproportionately on elk calves and old individuals; among mule deer, wolves appeared to select for fawns, whereas cougars killed primarily adults. Nutritional status of prey, as determined by percent femur marrow fat, was consistently poorer in wolf-killed prey. We found that wolf kills occurred in habitat that was more reflective of the entire study area than cougar kills, suggesting that the coursing hunting behavior of wolves likely operated on a larger spatial scale than did the ambush hunting strategy of cougars. We concluded that the disparity in prey selection and hunting habitat between predators probably was a function of predator-specific hunting behavior and capture success, where the longer prey chases and lower capture success of wolf packs mandated a stronger selection for disadvantaged prey. For cougars, prey selection seemed to be limited primarily by prey size, which could be a function of the solitary hunting behavior of this species and the risks associated with capturing prime-aged prey.     

Increases in Midwestern cougars despite harvest in a source population

Although cougars (Puma concolor) appear to be recolonizing the midwestern United States, there is concern that hunting in source populations (primarily the Black Hills, SD and WY, USA) may prevent cougars from dispersing eastward. We use carcass data of cougars (n =147 carcasses at known locations, of which 111 were of known sex) in the Midwest collected during 1990–2015 to quantify whether cougar hunting in the Black Hills affected cougar distribution and presence in the Midwest. We separated carcass data into 2 time periods: before hunting in the Black Hills (i.e., pre-hunt; 1990–2004) and after hunting (i.e., post-hunt; 2005–2015). We hypothesized that if hunting prevented dispersal into the Midwest, cougar distribution would be random and their presence less, relative to the pre-hunt period. We also were interested in sex ratios of carcasses over time, given the importance of that demographic metric to the potential establishment of viable populations. During the pre-hunt period, 25 carcasses were dispersed randomly in the Midwest. During the post-hunt period, we found nearly 4 times the number of carcasses in the Midwest (n = 86), carcasses were significantly clustered, and a greater percentage of carcasses were female (pre-hunt n = 6 [24%]; post-hunt n = 27 [31%]). Relative to the pre-hunt period, we observed a 460-km northward shift in the directional distribution of carcass locations during the post-hunt period. These findings do not support the idea that hunting in the Black Hills has prevented cougar presence from increasing in the Midwest. Alternatively, we suggest the potential for immigration from cougar populations farther to the west as an explanation for the increase in cougar presence (particularly females) confirmed after the initiation of cougar hunting in the Black Hills. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

Hierarchical Den Selection of Canada Lynx in Western Montana

Abstract We studied den selection of Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis; hereafter lynx) at multiple ecological scales based on 57 dens from 19 females located in western Montana, USA, between 1999 and 2006. We considered 3 spatial scales in this analysis, including den site (11-m-radius circle surrounding dens), den area (100-m-radius circle), and den environ (1-km radius surrounding dens). Lynx denned in preexisting sheltered spaces created by downed logs (62%), root-wads from wind-thrown trees (19%), boulder fields (10%), slash piles (6%), and live trees (4%). Lynx preferentially selected den sites with northeasterly aspects that averaged 248. Average distance between dens of 13 females monitored in consecutive years was 2,248 m, indicating low den site fidelity. Lynx exhibited habitat selection at all 3 spatial scales. Based on logistic regression, den sites differed from the surrounding den areas in having higher horizontal cover and log volume. Abundant woody debris from piled logs was the dominant habitat feature at den sites. Lynx generally denned in mature spruce-fir (Picea-Abies) forests with high horizontal cover and abundant coarse woody debris. Eighty percent of dens were in mature forest stands and 13% in mid-seral regenerating stands; young regenerating (5%) and thinned (either naturally sparse or mechanically thinned) stands with discontinuous canopies (2%) were seldom used. Female lynx selected den areas with greater spruce-fir tree basal area, higher horizontal cover, and larger-diameter trees compared to random locations within their home range. Lynx selected den environs in topographically concave or drainage-like areas, and farther from forest edges than random expectation. Maintaining mature and mid-seral regenerating spruce-fir forests with high horizontal cover and abundant woody debris would be most valuable for denning when located in drainages or in concave, drainage-like basins. Management actions that alter spruce-fir forests to a condition that is sparsely stocked (e.g., mechanically thinned) and with low canopy closure (<50%) would create forest conditions that are poorly suitable for lynx denning.     

Cougar Prey Selection in a White-Tailed Deer and Mule Deer Community

Abstract Widespread mule deer (Odocoilus hemionous) declines coupled with white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) increases prompted us to investigate the role of cougar (Puma concolor) predation in a white-tailed deer, mule deer, and cougar community in northeast Washington, USA. We hypothesized that cougars select for and disproportionately prey on mule deer in such multiple-prey communities. We estimated relative annual and seasonal prey abundance (prey availability) and documented 60 cougar kills (prey usage) from 2002 to 2004. White-tailed deer and mule deer comprised 72% and 28% of the total large prey population and 60% and 40% of the total large prey killed, respectively. Cougars selected for mule deer on an annual basis (α_md = 0.63 vs. α_wt = 0.37; P = 0.066). We also detected strong seasonal selection for mule deer with cougars killing more mule deer in summer (α_md = 0.64) but not in winter (α_md = 0.53). Cougars showed no seasonal selection for white-tailed deer despite their higher relative abundance. The mean annual kill interval of 6.68 days between kills varied little by season (winter = 7.0 days/kill, summer = 6.6 days/kill; P = 0.78) or prey species (white-tailed deer = 7.0 days/kill, mule deer = 6.1 days/kill; P = 0.58). Kill locations for both prey species occurred at higher elevations during summer months (summer = 1,090 m, winter = 908 m; P = 0.066). We suspect that cougars are primarily subsisting on abundant white-tailed deer during winter but following these deer to higher elevations as they migrate to their summer ranges, resulting in a greater spatial overlap between cougars and mule deer and disproportionate predation on mule deer.     

Effects of Remedial Sport Hunting on Cougar Complaints and Livestock Depredations

Remedial sport hunting of predators is often used to reduce predator populations and associated complaints and livestock depredations. We assessed the effects of remedial sport hunting on reducing cougar complaints and livestock depredations in Washington from 2005 to 2010 (6 years). The number of complaints, livestock depredations, cougars harvested, estimated cougar populations, human population and livestock populations were calculated for all 39 counties and 136 GMUs (game management units) in Washington. The data was then analyzed using a negative binomial generalized linear model to test for the expected negative relationship between the number of complaints and depredations in the current year with the number of cougars harvested the previous year. As expected, we found that complaints and depredations were positively associated with human population, livestock population, and cougar population. However, contrary to expectations we found that complaints and depredations were most strongly associated with cougars harvested the previous year. The odds of increased complaints and livestock depredations increased dramatically (36 to 240%) with increased cougar harvest. We suggest that increased young male immigration, social disruption of cougar populations, and associated changes in space use by cougars - caused by increased hunting resulted in the increased complaints and livestock depredations. Widespread indiscriminate hunting does not appear to be an effective preventative and remedial method for reducing predator complaints and livestock depredations.