Outcomes of a ‘One Health’ Monitoring Approach to a Five-Year Beaver (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Castor fiber</Emphasis>) Reintroduction Trial in Scotland

The Scottish Beaver Trial, involving the translocation and release of 16 wild Norwegian beavers (Castor fiber) to Scotland, provides a good example of a ‘One Health’ scientific monitoring approach, with independent monitoring partners on ecology and public health feeding into veterinary health surveillance. Pathogen detection did not prohibit beaver release, although eight beavers were seropositive for Leptospira spp. Six deaths (37.5%) occurred during Rabies quarantine, followed by the death of two animals shortly after release and two wild-born kits due to suspected predation. Two host-specific parasites, the beaver fluke (Stichorchis subtriquetrus) and beaver beetle (Platypsyllus castoris) were also reintroduced.     

Genetic diversity and population structure identify the potential source of the invasive red clover casebearer moth, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Coleophora deauratella</Emphasis>, in North America

The red clover casebearer, Coleophora deauratella, is an invasive pest of red clover grown for seed in North America. In 2006, an outbreak in Alberta, Canada was discovered that resulted in significant seed losses, while further invasion threatens the world’s largest red clover forage seed production region in Oregon, USA. Prior to the recent outbreak, C. deauratella was thought to be restricted to eastern North America in its invasive range. We sequenced a 615-bp fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene, and developed three microsatellite markers to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of C. deauratella in North America and its native range in Europe. We observed signatures of a founder effect in North American populations and a further loss of genetic diversity within Alberta populations. Most genetic differentiation was found between continents, with no evidence of isolation-by-distance within each continent. From the limited number of European populations sampled, a single introduction from Switzerland is the most probable source of North American populations based on similar mitochondrial diversity and lack of population differentiation. Within North America, based on increased genetic diversity compared to the rest of the continent, the first North American record from Ithaca, NY, and the first documented outbreak in southern Ontario in 1989, the initial C. deauratella invasion most likely occurred in southern Ontario, Canada or adjacent states in the USA, followed by transport throughout the continent. This study provides insight into the phylogeographic history of C. deauratella in North America and Europe and may help to identify a regional source of future classical biological control agents.     

Ontogenetic intraspecific allometry of autochthonous and reintroduced Eurasian beaver <Emphasis Type="Italic">Castor fiber</Emphasis> populations

Ontogenetic allometry of the cranium was studied in 580 individuals of the Eurasian beavers Castor fiber in two subspecies out of six autochthonous and reintroduced populations using the methods of multivariate nonparametric statistics. It was noted that the growth dynamics demonstrates a correspondence to trajectories of ontogenetic rodent models with the difference that intensive beaver growth finishes by the age of four years. Significant differences in the dynamics of age variability were detected in the beavers of two subspecies; with somewhat smaller initial postnatal sizes, C. fiber belorussicus grows faster than C. fiber orientoeuropaeus.     

Gene structure of the pregnancy-associated glycoprotein-like (PAG-L) in the Eurasian beaver (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Castor fiber</Emphasis> L.)

The pregnancy-associated glycoprotein-like family (PAG-L) is a large group of chorionic products, expressed in the pre-placental trophoblast and later in the post-implantational chorionic epithelium, and are involved in proper placenta development and embryo-maternal interaction in eutherians. This study describes identification of the PAG-L family in the genome of the Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber L.), named CfPAG-L. We identified 7657 bp of the CfPAG-L gDNA sequence (Acc. No. KX377932), encompassing nine exons (1–9) and eight introns (A–H). The length of the CfPAG-L exons (59–200 bp) was equivalently similar to the only known counterparts of bPAG1, bPAG2, and pPAG2. The length of the CfPAG-L introns ranged 288–1937 bp and was completely different from previously known PAG introns. The exonic CfPAG-L regions revealed 50.3–72.9% homology with equivalent segments of bPAG1 and pPAG2 structure. The intronic CfPAG-L regions alignments revealed a lack of homology. Within the entire CfPAG-L gene, 31 potential single nucleotide variants (SNV: 7 transversions and 24 transitions) were predicted. The identified exonic polymorphic loci did not affect the amino acid sequence of the CfPAG-L polypeptide precursor. This is the first report describing the CfPAG-L gene sequence, structural organization, and SNVs in the Eurasian beaver, one of the largest rodents.     

Effect of the vital activity products of beaver (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Castor fiber</Emphasis> L.) on the formation of zooplankton structure: Changes in the quantitative parameters of two cladocera species of different sizes in a beaver pound (in situ experiment)

The experiments were performed in microcosms situated on a control site and on a site regulated by beavers. Two cladoceran species of different sizes were placed in microcosms in different proportions. It was found that the vital activity products of Castor fiber L. promote an increase in the concentration of total phosphorus (P), a decrease in the N/P ratio in water, and an increase in the chlorophyll a concentration and the abundance and biomass of bacterioplankton. In such conditions, the abundance and biomass of the large species Daphnia (Ctenodaphnia) magna Straus was increased to the greatest extent when compared with background values when it was placed in combination with Ceriodaphnia dubia Richard or without it. Moreover, in the case of the combination of two crustacean species in microcosms, the abundance of C. dubia was lower when compared with the control site, while the abundance of D. magna was higher. The results of a bioassay showed that the productivity of C. dubia decreases in waters where D. magna is most abundant. We concluded that the formation of zooplankton in beaver ponds with specific features determined by the presence of large cladoceran species is provided by changes in the quantitative and qualitative parameters of food resources. This contributes to the massive distribution of large D. magna and its competitive relations with small C. dubia. According to the results of a bioassay, the vital activity products of D. magna can inhibit the fecundity of C. dubia.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Quinua</Emphasis> and Relatives (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chenopodium</Emphasis> sect.<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chenopodium</Emphasis> subsect.<Emphasis Type="Italic">Celluloid</Emphasis>)

Traditionally viewed as an Andean grain crop,Chenopodium quinoa Willd. includes domesticated populations that are not Andean, and Andean populations that are not domesticated. Comparative analysis of leaf morphology and allozyme frequencies have demonstrated that Andean populations, both domesticated(quinua) and free-living(ajara), represent an exceptionally homogeneous unit that is well differentiated from allied domesticates of coastal Chile(quingua) and freeliving populations of the Argentine lowlands(C. hircinum). This pattern of relationships indicates that Andean populations represent a monophyletic crop/weed system that has possibly developed through cyclic differentiation (natural vs. human selection) and introgressive hybridization. Relative levels of variation suggest that this complex originated in the southern Andes, possibly from wild types allied withC. hircinum, with subsequent dispersal north to Colombia and south to the Chilean coast. Coastal populations were apparently isolated from post-dispersal differentiation and homogenization that occurred in the Andes. Other data point toward a center of origin in the northern Andes with secondary centers of genetic diversity subsequently developing in the southern Andes and the plains of Argentina. Comparative linkage of South American taxa, all tetraploid, with North American tetraploids of the subsection will eventually clarify this problem. While the possibility of a direct phyletic connection betweenC. quinoa and the Mexican domesticate(C. berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae,) cannot be excluded, available evidence indicates that the latter represents an autonomous lineage that is associated with the basal tetraploid, C. b. subsp.berlandieri, through var.sinuatum, whereas South American taxa show possible affinities to either var. zschackei or var.berlandieri. An extinct domesticate of eastern North America,C. b. subsp.jonesianum, represents either another instance of independent domestication, possibly from subsp. b. var.zschackei, or a northeastern outlier of subsp.nuttalliae.     

The Role of Resource Density on Energy Allocation in the Neotropical Termite <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nasutitermes</Emphasis> aff. <Emphasis Type="Italic">coxipoensis</Emphasis> (Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae)

Organisms acquire energy from environment and must allocate it among different life traits (growth, maintenance and reproduction). Social insects must manage the energy allocation to various levels such as colony growth and caste functions. Here, we addressed the question of whether resource density affects the energy allocation to the number of individuals and caste functions as well as nest’s growth rate in the Neotropical termite Nasutitermes aff. coxipoensis (Homgren) (Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae). In a manipulative field experiment, colonies of N. aff. coxipoensis, with known volume, were maintained in plots with three different resource’s density (0.32, 0.64 and 1.92 baits/m²) over 3 months. After this period, the number of individuals as well as the caste identity and nest volume were measured. Surprisingly, our results showed that colonies reared in the extremes of resource’s density (0.32 and 1.92 baits/m²) produced a higher number of individuals compared with colonies reared with intermediate resource density (0. 64 baits/m²). The mean number of workers increased linearly with resource density; however, the average number of immature was higher in colonies reared with 0.32 baits/m² compared with colonies reared with 0.64 and 1.92 baits/m². No significant differences of resource density were observed in the mean number of soldiers, worker/soldier ratio as well as in the nest’s growth rate. In conclusion, the resource’s density seems to play an important role in determining the investment of energy in the number of individuals and caste in N. aff. coxipoensis colonies.     

Genetic analysis of Japanese and American specimens of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scirpus hattorianus</Emphasis> suggests its introduction from North America

Scirpus hattorianus is a possible alien species in Japan, and a clarification of its unclear taxonomy is required to reveal its origin. It is not known whether the plants initially described from Japan represent the same species distributed in North America. To clarify the origin of the species, we attempted to sequence old specimens collected about 80 years ago using newly designed primer pairs specific for short sequences, including the variable sites. Chloroplast sequences of ndhF were compared among Japanese and North American S. hattorianus, and the closely related species, S. atrovirens, S. flaccidifolius, and S. georgianus. We succeeded in sequencing all samples, and two haplotypes were detected in S. hattorianus: one was unique to the species and the other, detected from specimens potentially collected from the same population as the types, was shared by both North American S. hattorianus and two closely related species, S. atrovirens and S. flaccidifolius. Our results suggest that Japanese S. hattorianus is an alien species that was introduced from North America at least twice.     

Phylogeographic-based conservation implications for the New Zealand long-tailed bat, (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chalinolobus tuberculatus</Emphasis>): identification of a single ESU and a candidate population for genetic rescue

The New Zealand long-tailed bat (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) is an endemic species threatened with extinction. Since the arrival of humans, massive deforestation has occurred and invasive mammalian predators were introduced. As a result, C. tuberculatus’ distribution shrank dramatically and became fragmented. To aid the management of the remaining populations, two Evolutionary Significant Units (ESUs) were designated: one on each of New Zealand’s main islands. We utilised mitochondrial sequence data (cytb, 703 bp) and 10 nuclear DNA microsatellite loci to reconstruct the demographic history of this species, to characterise the level of genetic diversity in remaining populations, and to assess the current connectivity between them. Our results indicate that the North Island, with the highest genetic diversity, served as a glacial refuge, with a loss of diversity following the path recolonization to the south of the South Island. However, our data are also consistent with continued, or at least very recent, genetic exchange between colonies across the species distribution. The only exception is the Hanging Rock colony on the east coast of the South Island, which appears to be isolated. Thus, there was no support for the previously designated ESUs. Signatures of past population declines were found in three colonies, the most extreme of which was found in Hanging Rock. Consequently, we recommend that it be genetically rescued via translocation from a donor population. In general, future management priorities should treat Chalinolobus tuberculatus as a single unit, focusing on maintaining connectivity between remaining populations, together with continued roost protection and pest control.     

European <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hodophilus</Emphasis> (Clavariaceae,Agaricales) species with yellow stipe

Phylogenetic reconstruction of Hodophilus species with a yellow colour on the stipe based on nrITS, nrLSU and rpb2 sequences revealed six European species. All these species correspond to the widely accepted European concept of a single species Hodophilus micaceus. Four of these species are described and illustrated. H. micaceus and H. phaeoxanthus are recognised as two separate species and H. albofloccipes as a synonym of the latter. Two species, H. anatinus and H. cambriensis, are described as new. Possible endemism of H. micaceus and H. cambriensis to the British Isles is discussed. All analysed North American samples represent different species to those found in Europe. The North American species Hygrophorus rugulosus is combined in the genus Hodophilus. The preliminary key uses position and development of the yellow colour during maturation as the most important distinguishing character. The presence of the yellow colour is discussed as a possible synapomorphic character.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cortinarius</Emphasis> sect. <Emphasis Type="Italic">Riederi</Emphasis>: taxonomy and phylogeny of the new section with European and North American distribution

Cortinarius is one of the most species-rich genera of mushroom-forming fungi. Based on phylogenetic and morphological evidence, Cortinarius, sect. Riederi, is introduced at sectional level (= subsect. Riederi sensu Brandrud & Melot). The taxonomy, phylogeny, ecology and distribution of not only mainly European but also including some North American taxa of this section are treated, which includes nine species and two varieties. Of these, three taxa are described as new (C. burlinghamiae, C. pallidoriederi and C. argenteolilacinus var. dovrensis). The sect. Riederi species possess morphological features similar to Phlegmacium group(s) and forms a phylogenetically isolated lineage, with no supported affinity to other phlegmacioid groups. Three taxa are known from both Europe and North America, two species are known only from North America and five only from Europe. Altogether, eight of the ten taxa are associated with conifers or northern (boreal-subalpine) deciduous trees (Betula spp.). Only two species occur in more temperate forests (Fagus forests), and no species have so far been found in thermophilous Quercus forests     

Estimates of underwater and aerial visual acuity in the European beaver <Emphasis Type="Italic">Castor fiber</Emphasis> L. based on morphological data

The eye optics and topographic distribution of ganglion cells were studied using whole mount preparations from European beaver Castor fiber L. The beaver eye optics provides emmetropia in air and hypermetropia in water. The optometrical measurements predict retinal resolution of the beaver eye around 17′ in air and 9′ in water. In air, retinal resolution corresponds to the real visual acuity, whereas in water, visual acuity is below the retinal resolution because of the non-precise focusing.     

Paleogeography of the Ordovician bryozoans of the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diplotrypa</Emphasis> Nicholson (Trepostomida)

The stratigraphic and paleogeographic ranges of Ordovician bryozoans of the genus Diplotrypa (Trepostomida: Halloporidae) are analyzed. It is shown that they were then limited in geographic range to the Paleobaltic Basin (the most probable center of origin of the genus Diplotrypa) and to the West Arctic and North American basins. The Silurian bryozoans of this genus were represented by only a few species. In addition, the intercolonial variability of the species Diplotrypa abnormis (Modzalevskaya, 1953) and D. petropolitana (Nicholson, 1879) is studied; Upper Ordovician specimens of these species have been discovered from the Leningrad Region of Russia for the first time. The colonies of these species from the Leningrad Region are compared here with those of Podolia (Western Ukraine) and Vaygach Island (western sector of the Russian Arctic).     

Multiple introductions of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sirex noctilio</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) in northeastern North America based on microsatellite genotypes,and implications for biological control

The invasive woodwasp Sirex noctilio (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) has been moved from Eurasia into regions in the Southern Hemisphere, where extensive tree mortality has occurred in pines (Pinus spp.) introduced for forestry. More recently this woodwasp was found in northeastern North America, where pines are native, and it is a species of concern due to the economic importance of pines. Understanding the genetic diversity of North American S. noctilio points to new areas of inquiry, particularly regarding the ability of parasitic nematodes to sterilize woodwasps, which could provide control methods in the US and/or Canada. We investigated the genetic diversity of 924 S. noctilio from nine populations from New York and Pennsylvania (US), Ontario (CA), and Queensland (AU) using nine microsatellite loci. To avoid inflating the number of populations estimated by Bayesian inference, we measured the full-sibling relationships of woodwasps within 13 trees and removed all but one member of each full-sib family from the genetic analysis, resulting in a final sample size of 741 S. noctilio. Within a tree, on average 39% of woodwasps did not have a full sibling, and there were 5.6 families with at least two full-sibling members per tree. The mean family size across trees was 1.9 when single offspring (i.e., no full siblings) were included. Given the short time span since invasion, variation within North American S. noctilio is likely due to differences among founding genotypes. Genetic analyses support the hypothesis that at least two separate introductions occurred. Within North America, genetic distance measures were greatest between a site in southwestern Ontario and all other sites, suggesting that this population could represent a separate introduction event. Two methods of Bayesian clustering also support this idea; they detected 4 or 5 distinct genetic clusters with little admixture between the southwestern Ontario site and other North American populations. The wasps from Australia, where biological control with nematodes has been successful, showed low genetic diversity and clustered with the southwestern Ontario population in one out of two Bayesian analyses. Within the Ontario subset of samples, high woodwasp activity level (i.e., attack and mortality of trees) was associated with one genetic cluster more strongly than another. Population variation should be taken into account in studies of S. noctilio spread and management within North America.     

Foraging decisions of North American beaver (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Castor canadensis</Emphasis>) are shaped by energy constraints and predation risk

Foraging herbivores have to trade-off between energy requirements and predator avoidance. We aimed to study the relative roles of these factors in beavers (Castor canadensis) when foraging on land. We hypothesized that beavers were able to assess the risk of predation by using two main cues: the distance from the water and the presence or absence of predator odors. First, we studied the food selection of beavers in relation to distance from the water in natural settings. The transects were made at beaver ponds, and the diameter, species, and distance from the shore of intact and beaver-cut trees were recorded. Secondly, we placed rows of aspen sticks (Populus tremula) perpendicular to the shore around beaver ponds, and treated each row with a neutral, alien, or wolf odor. We found that aspen, downy birch (Betula pubescens), and speckled alder (Alnus incana) were the preferred tree species. More of these species were cut close to the shore, and cut trees were smaller further away from the shore, except in the case of aspen. In the experiment, most of the aspen sticks were taken close to the shore. As predicted, beavers took less aspen sticks in rows treated with wolf odor than water. As the predator odor did not affect the foraging distance from the shore, it is likely that our observation that foraging was the most intense close to shore is due to energetic constraints. However, predation risk probably affects the decision whether to forage on the land in the first place.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Spartina versicolor</Emphasis> Fabre: Another case of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Spartina</Emphasis> trans-Atlantic introduction?

Intercontinental introductions are widespread in the genus Spartina, with important ecological and evolutionary consequences. The native or introduced status of Spartina species is then critical with regard to biodiversity assessment, especially for vulnerable Mediterranean coastline ecosystems. Spartina versicolor was first recorded in southern France in 1849, then successively in various places on the European and North-African Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts. This species is considered to be either a European native or an invasive species introduced from North America which has a high morphological similarity to the Atlantic American species Spartina patens. We performed extensive sampling of S. versicolor in Europe and North Africa (from natural populations and herbarium collections) and compared these samples to other European and American Spartina species (including S. patens). Chromosome counts were reported for the first time and revealed that S. versicolor is tetraploid (2n = 4x = 40). Phylogenetic analyses based on chloroplast and nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences did not reveal any molecular variation within S. versicolor. In this species, a single haplotype, that is identical to one haplotype of S. patens, was found in the four chloroplast and the nuclear ribosomal ITS regions investigated. In addition, simple sequence repeat markers were used and revealed a low level of genetic diversity within S. versicolor, suggesting that the introduction of S. versicolor occurred from a narrow genetic pool of S. patens from North America.     

Phylogenetic assessment and taxonomic revision of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mariannaea</Emphasis>

Four new species of Mariannaea were described in this paper, namely M. chlamydospora, M. cinerea, M. fusiformis, and M. lignicola. Mariannaea chlamydospora is characterized by its cream-colored, zonate colonies on PDA, smooth conidiophores, fusiform conidia, and abundant chlamydospores. Mariannaea cinerea forms grey colonies and ellipsoidal to subglobose conidia. Mariannaea fusiformis forms purple colonies and fusiform to subglobose conidia. Mariannaea lignicola has brown conidiophores and broad hyphae. The molecular phylogeny was inferred using ITS, LSU, and TUB-2 loci. The type species of Mariannaea (M. elegans) is epitypified. The variety M. elegans var. punicea is raised to species rank. Mariannaea clavispora is excluded from Mariannaea because of its cylindrical phialides, straight conidial chains and deviating phylogenetic affinity. Mariannaea nipponica did not fit well the generic concept of Mariannaea based on their morphological characters, and its generic placement remains uncertain. A key to the currently accepted 15 species of Mariannaea is provided.     

Premaxillae of the Extinct Megalonychid Sloths <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acratocnus</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Neocnus</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Megalonyx</Emphasis>, and their Phylogenetic Implications (Mammalia,Xenarthra)

In most folivorans, the premaxilla is loosely attached to the maxilla, so that it is often missing in otherwise very well-preserved fossil skulls. Despite its infrequent preservation in sloths, the premaxilla has been shown to have phylogenetically significant variation among the taxa that do preserve the element. In the family Megalonychidae, the premaxilla is known only in the early taxon Eucholoeops (Santacrucian South American Land Mammal Age [SALMA]), the extant two-toed sloth Choloepus, and the North American Neogene taxon Megalonyx, the last described only in an unpublished Master’s thesis. We report here the discovery of the premaxilla in two genera of extinct megalonychids, Neocnus and Acratocnus. These small bodied, semiarboreal megalonychid sloths are endemic to the islands of the Greater Antilles. Though the presence of sloths in the Caribbean dates at least to the late Oligocene, the best known taxa derive from Pleistocene to Holocene cave deposits in Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, and Cuba. We also describe the premaxilla in two species of Megalonyx from North America, the Blancan North American Land Mammal Age (NALMA) M. leptostomus and Rancholabrean NALMA M. jeffersonii. These species show a progressive reorientation of the premaxilla within Megalonyx from a primitive horizontal element to a nearly vertical element, and some significant changes in the anatomy of the incisive foramen. Morphological evidence suggests that a broadened, plate-like premaxilla constitutes a synapomorphy for the entire clade Megalonychidae. Furthermore, although Eucholoeops retains a short anterior process of the premaxilla like that of megatherioid sloths, this process is lacking in the other megalonychids, suggesting that the loss of this process may unite late Miocene to Recent megalonychids.     

Higher immunocompetence is associated with higher genetic diversity in feral honey bee colonies (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Apis mellifera</Emphasis>)

Honey bees are the most important managed pollinators as they provide key ecosystem services for crop production worldwide. Recent losses of honey bee colonies in North America and Europe have demonstrated a need to develop strategies to improve their health and conserve their populations. Previously, we showed that feral honey bees—colonies that live in the wild without human assistance—exhibit higher levels of immunocompetence than managed colonies in North Carolina (USA). In a first attempt to investigate the underlying mechanisms of this difference in immune response, here we characterize the genetic composition of feral and managed honey bees using microsatellite markers. Our results reveal significant but small genetic differentiation between feral and managed honey bee colonies (?_CT = 0.047, P?=?0.03) indicating admixture between these two groups. Higher genetic diversity was correlated with higher immune response in feral (P _MANOVA = 0.011) but not managed bees, despite the fact that the latter group showed significantly higher average genetic diversity (P _ANCOVA < 0.001). These findings suggest that genetic diversity is positively associated with immunocompetence in feral honey bee colonies, and that the benefits of genetic diversity are obscured in managed bees, perhaps as a result of artificial selection. We hypothesize that high genetic variability provides the raw material upon which natural selection acts and generates adaptive genotypes in unmanaged populations. Feral populations could be useful sources of genetic variation to use in breeding programs that aim to improve honey bee health.