Efficacy of microalgae for industrial wastewater treatment: a review on operating conditions,treatment efficiency and biomass productivity

Sustainable, clean, renewable energy without negotiating contiguous environment is a challenging task mainly comprises of natural resource management which involves operational efficiency, waste minimisation and energy recovery. Disposal of untreated industrial wastewater with chemical nutrients especially compounds containing nitrogen and phosphorous lead to eutrophication and related environmental issues that affect the recycling processes of bio system. Biotransformation of pollutants using microalgae has proven to be proficient and economic method of wastewater treatment due to their adaptability of growing in various wastewater streams and also useful in the process of CO₂ fixation. Moreover this technology has the competence of producing bio fuels as an alternative energy resource in the form of bio diesel, bio ethanol and biogas. In this review paper, the applicability of microalgae cultivation in industrial wastewater treatment has been discussed extensively including the processes involved, influencing operational parameters such as study mode, cultivation mode and time, method of aeration, pH and intensity of light. Further, the cultivation methods, harvesting techniques involved in the treatment process have been presented. In addition, the analysis on removal efficiency of algal treatment, biomass productivity and lipid content of the cultivated biomass has been discussed widely which possibly will be helpful in adopting the process integration in industrial wastewater treatment with bio energy production.     

Untangling a Decline in Tropical Forest Resilience: Constraints on the Sustainability of Shifting Cultivation Across the Globe

Shifting cultivators depend on forest biomass inputs to nourish their crops. For them, forest resilience has an immediate impact: it affects crop productivity. A decline in the rate of recovery following shifting cultivation would ultimately affect local, regional and global carbon budgets, with feedbacks to climate. Yet the long-term impacts of shifting cultivation have been quantified in only six locations. In this study, we reanalyze data from these locations to determine whether the rate of biomass recovery is the same from cycle to cycle. Further, using case studies in Southern Yucatan, Mexico and West Kalimantan, Indonesia, we investigate the ecological and socioeconomic factors that affect forest resilience and thus determine whether or not shifting cultivation is sustainable. The reanalysis links aboveground biomass recovery following shifting cultivation to site productivity, forest age, fallow length, history of cultivation, and soil texture. Across locations, biomass accumulation rate declines by 9.3 percent with each cycle of shifting cultivation. Per cycle change in biomass accumulation rate is significantly more negative in younger forests and forests that experience a shorter fallow period. However, more detailed analyses for two case studies suggest that a purely ecological framework is of limited effectiveness in explaining variability in the effect of repeated shifting cultivation. Rather, socioeconomic factors such as migration, subsidies, roads, and settlement history can alter the outcome of shifting cultivation by limiting the accumulation and use of local knowledge.     

Production of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Macrocystis pyrifera</Emphasis> (Laminariales; Phaeophyceae) in northern Chile on spore-based culture

Since the establishment of abalone farming, there has been an increase in the demand for Macrocystis as a food source. Therefore, the pressure on natural stock has also augmented and the sustainability of the actual harvesting practices has been questioned. In this article, an attempt to farm Macrocystis pyrifera by zoospores in northern Chile is described; initially under laboratory conditions and subsequently by cultivation in the sea. The experiments were executed during 1 year and two different cultivation methodologies were used: a direct and an indirect method. A maximum frond length of 175 cm was reached and 22 kg m⁻¹of rope was produced after 120 to 150 days of cultivation in the sea. The algae grew under both methodologies, and no differences in algal length and biomass were detected between the two cultivation systems. However, the direct culture method can be recommended for productive and practical reasons.     

Sequential inorganic chemical analysis of a core from Slapton Ley,Devon, UK

Numerous species of seaweed have been successfully cultivated in the sea for commercial purposes. Although considerable experimental work has been done on on-shore cultivation systems, none of these has yet proved to be economically viable on a sustained basis; nevertheless, such cultivation systems offer the potential for productivities greater than can be achieved in other systems. In on-shore systems, factors other than light can be controlled and provided at saturation levels. As density of biomass is controllable, all the light entering the cultivation system is absorbed. This results in efficient conversion of light energy to biomass when only light is limiting; moreover, density, rather than growth rate, is the major factor determining productivity. As growth of seaweeds in on-shore systems is only vegetative, there is no interruption for reproduction or maturation of the plants, and all of the net production can be recovered. Seaweeds have, though, relatively low percentage carbon composition, compared with terrestrial plants, and this may result in apparent high productivities based on dry matter.     

农林复合系统中滇龙胆形态和生物量变化研究

以幼龄茶树(Camellia sinensis var.sinensis)、十年茶树、木瓜(Chaenomeles sinensis)、尼泊尔桤木(Alnus nepalensis)、大叶桉(Eucalyptus robusta)间作模式和荒坡栽培滇龙胆为研究对象,测定其株高、茎粗、叶长、根粗、生物量等性状,采用单因素方差分析、多重比较、相关性分析和多元逐步回归分析对其形态和生物量数据进行分析。结果表明:荒坡栽培、滇龙胆与十年茶树间作其株高最高,为(37.32±8.36)cm和(37.31±9.62)cm,与大叶桉间作其株高最低,为(19.08±12.40)cm;荒坡栽培植株茎粗数值最高,为(0.36±0.13)cm,大叶桉间作茎粗数值最低,为(0.23±0.04)cm;与茶树间作植株根系最长,为(18.42±7.23)cm和(17.71±7.34)cm,与尼泊尔桤木间作植株须根数最少,为(7.32±2.23)cm;根粗受栽培模式影响不显著(P0.05);荒坡栽培全株生物量最高,为(14.52±13.37)g,大叶桉间作全株生物量最低,为(2.17±1.42)g。相关性分析显示,株高、茎粗和须根数与全株生物量呈极显著的正相关(R=0.514,P0.01;R=0.510,P0.01;R=0.339,P0.01)。根茎比与全株生物量呈极显著的负相关(R=-0.295,P0.01)。多元逐步回归分析显示,各性状对全株生物量的积累贡献程度不同,株高、茎粗、须根数和根粗是影响滇龙胆生物量积累的主要性状。荒坡栽培光照条件较好,有利于植株生物量的积累;与桉树间作,滇龙胆可能受生物与非生物胁迫的共同影响,使其植株矮小,生物量偏低。6种栽培模式中荒坡、滇龙胆与茶树、木瓜间作栽培为高产模式。研究结果可为农林药用复合种植中物种搭配、时间和空间种植技术优化升级以及管理提供理论依据。     

Crop diversity and fallow management in a tropical deciduous forest shifting cultivation system

Shifting cultivation is important to many of the inhabitants of tropical forest regions. Much scientific research has been conducted on this form of agriculture in the humid tropics, but the drier portions of the tropics remain less studied. The shifting cultivation system practiced in the tropical deciduous forests of western Guerrero, Mexico, provides insight into such production systems, especially with regard to crop diversity and fallow characteristics. This system is characterized by low crop diversity, based primarily on maize (Zea mays)cultivation, and a general lack of fallow management. The farmers also utilize several strategies not common to many other regions, including highly seasonal labor allocation patterns, varying fallow cycle lengths, and the occasional application of chemical inputs.     

Role of non-timber forest products in the economy of peripheral communities of knuckles national wilderness area of Sri Lanka: A farming systems approach

The Knuckles range of forests has been identified as a unique biological resource in Sri Lanka with much biodiversity. It is also important as a watershed which feeds the Mahaweli reservoir system. Having considered the present hazardous land-use practices such as cardamum production and shifting cultivation, the Knuckles range has been declared a national wilderness area. The Forest Department is in the process of preparing the management plan for the area. There are about 48 villages in the vicinity of the forest. This study attempts to estimate the composition of income in the peripheral communities, ticularly the extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFP) from this range of forests. Data were collected using structured questionnaires from 60 households in three villages in the vicinity of the forest. The rural economy is described using a farming systems approach and the net income contributed by each activity in the farming system was estimated. Results show that nine components of the farming system use resources from the village and the forest, with at least 47 plant species used by the villagers for different purposes. Cardamum production and shifting cultivation contribute significantly to the total income of the household, but the majority of households in the study depend upon forest resources to supply some portion of their income. Nevertheless, the monetary value of the annual income generated by NTFP is much lower than income from either cardamum production or shifting cultivation. If cardamum production and shifting cultivation are to be restricted under the conservation program, there could be additional pressure put on NTFP. Therefore, we suggest a study of the natural regen-eration capacity of selected NTFP; such information should be used in finalizing the management plan in the Knuckles range of forests.     

The potential of quantitative models to improve microalgae photosynthetic efficiency

The massive increase in carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere driven by human activities is causing huge negative consequences and new sustainable sources of energy, food and materials are highly needed. Algae are unicellular photosynthetic microorganisms that can provide a highly strategic contribution to this challenge as alternative source of biomass to complement crops cultivation. Algae industrial cultures are commonly limited by light availability, and biomass accumulation is strongly dependent on their photon‐to‐biomass conversion efficiency. Investigation of algae photosynthetic metabolism is thus strategic for the generation of more efficient strains with higher productivity. Algae are cultivated at industrial scale in conditions highly different from the natural niches they adapted to and strains development efforts must fully consider the seminal influence on productivity of regulatory mechanism of photosynthesis as well as of cultivation parameters like cells concentration, light distribution in the culture, mixing, nutrients and carbon dioxide availability. In this review we will focus in particular on how mathematical models can account for the complex influence of all environmental parameters and can be exploited for development of improved algae strains.     

Ammonium nitrate fertiliser production based on biomass - environmental effects from a life cycle perspective

Ammonium nitrate and calcium ammonium nitrate are the most commonly used straight nitrogen fertilisers in Europe, accounting for 43% of the total nitrogen used for fertilisers. They are both produced in a similar way; carbonate can be added as a last step to produce calcium ammonium nitrate. The environmental impact, fossil energy input and land use from using gasified biomass (cereal straw and short rotation willow (Salix) coppice) as feedstock in ammonium nitrate production were studied in a cradle-to-gate evaluation using life cycle assessment methodology. The global warming potential in the biomass systems was only 22-30% of the impact from conventional production using natural gas. The eutrophication potential was higher for the biomass systems due to nutrient leaching during cultivation, while the acidification was about the same in all systems. The primary fossil energy use was calculated to be 1.45 and 1.37MJ/kg nitrogen for Salix and straw, respectively, compared to 35.14MJ for natural gas. The biomass production was assumed to be self-supporting with nutrients by returning part of the ammonium nitrate produced together with the ash from the gasification. For the production of nitrogen from Salix, it was calculated that 3914kg of nitrogen can be produced every year from 1ha, after that 1.6% of the produced nitrogen has been returned to the Salix production. From wheat straw, 1615kg of nitrogen can be produced annually from 1ha, after that 0.6% of the nitrogen has been returned.     

Excess turbulence as a cause of turbohypobiosis in cultivation of microorganisms

The present review describes the influence of different types of mixing systems under excess turbulence conditions on microorganisms. Turbohypobiosis phenomena were described by applying a method for measurement of the kinetic energy of flow fluctuations based on the piezoeffect. It can be assumed that the shear stress effect (the state of turbohypobiosis) plays a role mainly when alternative mechanisms in cells cannot ensure a normal physiological state under stress conditions. Practically any system (inner construction of a bioreactor, culture and cultivation conditions, including mixing) requires its own optimisation to achieve the final goal, namely, the maximum product and/or biomass yields from substrate (Y _P/S or/and Y _X/S ), respectively. Data on the biotechnological performance of cultivation as well as power input, kinetic energy (e) of flow fluctuations, air consumption rate, rotational speed, tip speed, etc. do not correlate directly if the mixing systems (impellers-baffles) are dissimilar. Even the widely used specific power consumption cannot be relied upon for scaling up the cultivation performance using dissimilar mixing systems. A biochemical explanation for substrate and product transport via cell walls, carbon pathways, energy generation and utilisation, etc. furnishes insight into cellular interactions with turbulence of different origin for different types of microorganisms (single cells, mycelia forming cells, etc.).     

Cultivation of Marine Sponges

There is increasing interest in biotechnological production of marine sponge biomass owing to the discovery of many commercially important secondary metabolites in this group of animals. In this article, different approaches to producing sponge biomass are reviewed, and several factors that possibly influence culture success are evaluated. In situ sponge aquacultures, based on old methods for producing commercial bath sponges, are still the easiest and least expensive way to obtain sponge biomass in bulk. However, success of cultivation with this method strongly depends on the unpredictable and often suboptimal natural environment. Hence, a better-defined production system would be desirable. Some progress has been made with culturing sponges in semicontrolled systems, but these still use unfiltered natural seawater. Cultivation of sponges under completely controlled conditions has remained a problem. When designing an in vitro cultivation method, it is important to determine both qualitatively and quantitatively the nutritional demands of the species that is to be cultured. An adequate supply of food seems to be the key to successful sponge culture. Recently, some progress has been made with sponge cell cultures. The advantage of cell cultures is that they are completely controlled and can easily be manipulated for optimal production of the target metabolites. However, this technique is still in its infancy: a continuous cell line has yet to be established. Axenic cultures of sponge aggregates (primmorphs) may provide an alternative to cell culture. Some sponge metabolites are, in fact, produced by endosymbiotic bacteria or algae that live in the sponge tissue. Only a few of these endosymbionts have been cultivated so far. The biotechnology for the production of sponge metabolites needs further development. Research efforts should be continued to enable commercial exploitation of this valuable natural resource in the near future. Received November 5, 1998; accepted June 20, 1999.     

Comparative life cycle assessment of autotrophic cultivation of Scenedesmus dimorphus in raceway pond coupled to biodiesel and biogas production

Life cycle assessment (LCA) of indigenous freshwater microalgae, Scenedesmus dimorphus, cultivation in open raceway pond and its conversion to biodiesel and biogas were carried out. The LCA inventory inputs for the biogas scenario was entirely based on primary data obtained from algal cultivation (in pilot scale raceway pond), harvesting, and biogas production; while only the downstream processing involved in biodiesel production namely drying, reaction and purification were based on secondary data. Overall, eight scenarios were modeled for the integrated process involving: algae-based CO₂ capture and downstream processing scenarios for biodiesel and biogas along with impact assessment of nutrient addition and extent of recycling in a life cycle perspective. The LCA results indicated a huge energy deficit and net CO₂ negative in terms of CO₂ capture for both the biodiesel and biogas scenarios, majorly due to lower algal biomass productivity and higher energy requirements for culture mixing. The sensitivity analysis indicated that variability in the biomass productivity has predominant effect on the primary energy demand and global warming potential (GWP, kg CO₂ eq.) followed by specific energy consumption for mixing algal culture. Furthermore, the LCA results indicated that biogas conversion route from microalgae was more energy efficient and sustainable than the biodiesel route. The overall findings of the study suggested that microalgae-mediated CO₂ capture and conversion to biodiesel and biogas production can be energy efficient at higher biomass productivity (> 10 g m⁻² day⁻¹) and via employing energy-efficient systems for culture mixing (< 2 W m⁻³).

     

Assessing the cultivation potential of the energy crop Miscanthus × giganteus for Germany

The European Union in general and Germany in particular want to lead the way to substantially expand renewable energies for power production. Considering the extremely ambitious objectives of the German Federal Government, a strong, nationwide increase in cultivating energy crops can be anticipated. However, the expansion of biomass production, which is already in progress, has led to several environmental and ecological objections. Aside from competing for land, for food and feed production, the expansion of monocultures for biomass and biofuel production with a concentration on maize (Zea mays) and rapeseed (Brassica napus) can be problematic for biodiversity conservation. To face these challenges, the provision and cultivation of additional crop species and cultivars for biomass production would help to avoid these problems. The designated energy crop Miscanthus × giganteus represents an alternative species for extended biomass production. This giant grass is characterized by a broad range of possible applications and a high potential in producing and providing biomass in a sustainable way. In our study, we conducted a Geographic Information System (GIS)-based analysis of the cultivation potential of M. giganteus in Germany. As a result, we generated digital maps that display preferential regions for the cultivation of M. giganteus where a high productivity and quality of biomass is expected. Combining different climate- and soil-dependent scenarios, a total acreage potential of 4 million ha is predicted for Germany.     

生物质能源植物种植对生物多样性的影响

随着化石燃料资源的减少和全球环境问题的加剧, 全球生物质能源的生产增长迅速, 生物质能源植物种植面积不断增长。全球生物质能源植物的大面积种植对生物多样性造成了严重影响: 不但直接或间接侵占了大片自然或半自然生态系统, 造成生物原生栖息地的退化和消失, 而且还易造成生态系统单一并改变生态系统结构与功能, 加剧面源污染, 引起外来种入侵, 甚至增加了转基因生物安全风险。为减少生物质能源植物种植对生物多样性的影响, 政府或相关单位需制订可持续发展的生物质能源生产管理规范, 合理规划以避免在生物多样性丰富或脆弱区种植生物质能源植物, 积极开发新技术并改变生物质能源原料的利用效益, 加强生产方式管理并改变传统种植模式。     

Recirculating Culture for Chondracanthus Exasperatus

The red alga Chondracanthus exasperatus is a source of the phycocolloid carrageenan as well as an ingredient referred to as ‘intralamellar gel’ in a recently developed cosmetic formula (US Patent 6136 329). The high value of the cosmetic product has sparked renewed interest in cultivation of this species. Previous cultivation methods for this species include open water culture on nets and immersed cultivation in tanks supplied with flow‐through pumped seawater. The installation of a high capacity seawater supply, pumping and drain system is a major cost for flow through systems. Recirculating or re‐use seawater systems that minimize seawater turnover may offer significant cost savings over single‐pass, flow through seawater systems. In this research several options for minimizing seawater use have been tested: recirculating batch culture in which nutrient replenished (carbon dioxide and mineral nutrients) natural or artificial seawater is used with minimal turnover and spray culture in which plants are suspended in air saturated with nutrient replenished natural or artificial seawater medium. Small volume (<2 L), single‐plant bioreactors and larger multiplant, 20, 80 and 320 L (sea water volume) immersion and spray systems have been developed and tested. Results from these systems will be presented. Research supported by Washington Sea Grant, Washington Biotechnology Center and Soliv International Corporation.     

Cultivation of yeasts on hydrolysate nutrient medium obtained from the production of microcrystalline cellulose

Studies of the biomass production during a continuous cultivation of yeasts on a nutrient medium, prepared from a hydrolysate from the production of microcrystalline cellulose, have been carried out. A new strain of yeasts has been used. Its cultivation has been achieved without addition of biostimulators to the nutrient medium in spite of their absence in the initial hydrolysate. Practically a complete assimilation of sugars has been achieved at high dilution rates (D = 0.25 to 0.50 h⁺¹). The yield of biomass achieved is above 50% compared to the initial sugars and it contains 48.89% true protein. The results obtained offer the possibility of a complex utilization of the products of cellulose hydrolysis in the production of microcrystalline cellulose with a realization of a waste free technology.     

Earthworm populations in conventional and integrated farming systems in the LIFE Project (SW England) in 1990–2000

Dilute formalin was used to sample earthworm populations in a field experiment comparing conventional (CFS) and integrated (IFS) farming systems, at Long Ashton in SW England during 1990–2000. Crops in the CFS were established by ploughing. Those in the IFS treatments were established by non‐inversion tillage: in the first 5 yrs using a Dutzi cultivator or by direct drilling (IFS‐1); from 1994 onwards using either a Vaderstad cultivator (IFS‐2) or a Dutzi cultivator (IFS‐3). These treatments had little or no effect on earthworm populations over the first 3 yrs of the experiment, but after this time total earthworm numbers and biomass were generally greater in the IFS treatments than in the CFS. Individual earthworm species (determined from 1995 onwards) differed in their response to the different farming systems. Numbers of Allolobophora chlorotica, Lumbricus festivus, L. rubellus and L. terrestris averaged over all years were significantly greater in IFS‐3 than in CFS, with densities in IFS‐2 nearly always intermediate and not significantly different from either extreme. Average treatment differences for other species were not significant, although in most years numbers of Aporrectodea longa, Lumbricus castaneus and Octolasion spp. were greatest in IFS‐3, with IFS‐2 similar to or less than CFS. There were no consistent differences between treatments for Aporrectodea caliginosa and A. rosea. Tillage method and the number of crop establishment passes were probably the main factors affecting earthworm populations, although the abundance and distribution of some species may also have been influenced by the amount of soil organic matter. During the period 1995–2000,13 species of earthworms were recorded from the site with A. caliginosa and Al. chlorotica the dominant species. These and other species which normally live in temporary burrows close to the soil surface formed about 80% of the total earthworms extracted, with the larger deep burrowing species, such as A. longa and L. terrestris, representing <20% of the total catch. Species diversity was consistently greater in the Dutzi‐based integrated system (IFS‐3) than in either the Vaderstad‐based integrated system (IFS‐2) or the conventional system (CFS). It is suggested that knowledge of the species composition of earthworm communities is essential in order to properly anticipate the likely impact of modified farming practices on earthworm populations. Careful consideration of the specific machine(s) used for tillage operations may also be required.     

Influence of fishes on macroinvertebrate communities and insect emergence production in intermittent stream refuges

1. Drying intermittent stream networks often have permanent water refuges that are important for recolonisation. These habitats may be hotspots for interactions between fishes and invertebrates as they become isolated, but densities and diversity of fishes in these refuges can be highly variable across time and space.
2. Insect emergence from streams provides energy and nutrient subsidies to riparian habitats. The magnitude of such subsidies may be influenced by in-stream predators such as fishes.
3. We examined whether benthic macroinvertebrate communities, emerging adult insects, and algal biomass in permanent grassland stream pools differed among sites with naturally varying densities of fishes. We also manipulated fish densities in a mesocosm experiment to address how fishes might affect colonisation during recovery from hydrologic disturbance.
4. Fish biomass had a negative impact on invertebrate abundance, but not biomass or taxa richness, in natural pools. Total fish biomass was not correlated with total insect emergence in natural pools, but orangethroat darter (Etheostoma spectabile) biomass was inversely correlated with emerging Chironomidae biomass and individual midge body size. The interaction in our models between predatory fish biomass and date suggested that fishes may also delay insect emergence from natural pools, altering the timing of aquatic–terrestrial subsidies.
5. There was an increase over time in algal biomass (chlorophyll-a) in mesocosms, but this did not differ among fish density treatments. Regardless, fish presence in mesocosms reduced the abundance of colonising insects and total invertebrate biomass. Mesocosm invertebrate communities in treatments without fishes were characterised by more Chironomidae, Culicidae, and Corduliidae.
6. Results suggest that fishes influence invertebrates in habitats that represent important refuges during hydrologic disturbance, hot spots for subsidy exports to riparian food webs, and source areas for colonists during recovery from hydrologic disturbance. Fish effects in these systems include decreasing invertebrate abundance, shifting community structure, and altering patterns of invertebrate emergence and colonisation.

     

A novel photobioreactor with transparent rectangular chambers for cultivation of microalgae

An open tank photobioreactor containing transparent rectangular chambers (TRCs) was developed to improve the photosynthetic efficiency of microalgal cultivation. The TRCs, made of transparent acrylic, conducted light deep into the photobioreactor, especially at high cell concentrations. The average irradiance, I_av, was calculated by Lambert–Beer's law, and was used to determine the light conditions in the cultivation system. The photobioreactor provided large areas of illumination that improved the effective utilization of light energy for microalgae growth and created a good artificial environment for a high rate of cell growth, even at low I_av. The biomass concentration of Chlorella sp. reached 3.745 g L⁻¹ on the 13th day, with biomass productivity of 0.340 g L⁻¹ d⁻¹. The total biomass obtained was 56% more than that of similar culture systems without TRCs.     

Chemostat cultivation as a tool for studies on sugar transport in yeasts.

Chemostat cultivation enables investigations into the effects of individual environmental parameters on sugar transport in yeasts. Various means are available to manipulate the specific rate of sugar uptake (qs) in sugar-limited chemostat cultures. A straightforward way to manipulate qs is variation of the dilution rate, which, in substrate-limited chemostat cultures, is equal to the specific growth rate. Alternatively, qs can be varied independently of the growth rate by mixed-substrate cultivation or by variation of the biomass yield on sugar. The latter can be achieved, for example, by addition of nonmetabolizable weak acids to the growth medium or by variation of the oxygen supply. Such controlled manipulation of metabolic fluxes cannot be achieved in batch cultures, in which various parameters that are essential for the kinetics of sugar transport cannot be controlled. In sugar-limited chemostat cultures, yeasts adapt their sugar transport systems to cope with the low residual sugar concentrations, which are often in the micromolar range. Under the conditions, yeasts with high-affinity proton symport carriers have a competitive advantage over yeasts that transport sugars via facilitated-diffusion carriers. Chemostat cultivation offers unique possibilities to study the energetic consequences of sugar transport in growing cells. For example, anaerobic, sugar-limited chemostat cultivation has been used to quantify the energy requirement for maltose-proton symport in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Controlled variation of growth conditions in chemostat cultures can be used to study the differential expression of genes involved in sugar transport and as such can make an important contribution to the ongoing studies on the molecular biology of sugar transport in yeasts.