A Mechanism To Explain the Selection of the Hepatitis e Antigen-Negative Mutant during Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) expresses two structural forms of the nucleoprotein, the intracellular nucleocapsid (hepatitis core antigen [HBcAg]) and the secreted nonparticulate form (hepatitis e antigen [HBeAg]). The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of HBcAg- and HBeAg-specific genetic immunogens to induce HBc/HBeAg-specific CD4⁺/CD8⁺ T-cell immune responses and the potential to induce liver injury in HBV-transgenic (Tg) mice. Both the HBcAg- and HBeAg-specific plasmids primed comparable immune responses. Both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells were important for priming/effector functions of HBc/HBeAg-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses. However, a unique two-step immunization protocol was necessary to elicit maximal CTL priming. Genetic vaccination did not prime CTLs in HBe- or HBc/HBeAg-dbl-Tg mice but elicited a weak CTL response in HBcAg-Tg mice. When HBc/HBeAg-specific CTLs were adoptively transferred into HBc-, HBe-, and HBc/HBeAg-dbl-Tg mice, the durations of the liver injury and inflammation were significantly greater in HBeAg-Tg recipient mice than in HBcAg-Tg mice. Importantly, liver injury in HBc/HBeAg-dbl-Tg mice was similar to the injury observed in HBeAg-Tg mice. Loss of HBeAg synthesis commonly occurs during chronic HBV infection; however, the mechanism of selection of HBeAg-negative variants is unknown. The finding that hepatocytes expressing wild-type HBV (containing both HBcAg and HBeAg) are more susceptible to CTL-mediated clearance than hepatocytes expressing only HBcAg suggest that the HBeAg-negative variant may have a selective advantage over wild-type HBV within the livers of patients with chronic infection during an immune response and may represent a CTL escape mutant.     

两株乙型肝炎病毒基因组结构分析及其复制和抗原表达特性的比较

为从全基因组水平研究乙型肝炎病毒（ＨＢＶ）的核苷酸结构及复制和抗原表达特性,分别从２例ＨＢｓＡｇ和ＨＢｅＡｇ阳性、ＨＢＶ ＤＮＡ滴度为１０＾１４和１０＾１３拷贝／ｍｌ的慢性乙型肝炎患者（编号为５６和２－１８）血清中扩增、克隆了ＨＢＶ全基因组,并测定了核苷酸序列。两株病毒基因组转染ＨｅｐＧ２细胞的培养上清中ＨＢｓＡｇ水平基本相同,但＃５６毒株表达的ＨＢｅＡｇ约为＃２－１８株的３倍,Ｓｏｕｔｈｅｒｍ印     

Genetic Characterization of Hepatitis B Virus in Peripheral Blood Leukocytes: Evidence for Selection and Compartmentalization of Viral Variants with the Immune Escape G145R Mutation

The compartmentalization of viral variants in distinct host tissues is a frequent event in many viral infections. Although hepatitis B virus (HBV) classically is considered hepatotropic, it has strong lymphotropic properties as well. However, unlike other viruses, molecular evolutionary studies to characterize HBV variants in compartments other than hepatocytes or sera have not been performed. The present work attempted to characterize HBV sequences from the peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) of a large set of subjects, using advanced molecular biology and computational methods. The results of this study revealed the exclusive compartmentalization of HBV subgenotype Ae/A2-specific sequences with a potent immune escape G145R mutation in the PBL of the majority of the subjects. Interestingly, entirely different HBV genotypes/subgenotypes (C, D, or Aa/A1) were found to predominate in the sera of the same study populations. These results suggest that subgenotype Ae/A2 is selectively archived in the PBL, and the high prevalence of G145R indicates high immune pressure and high evolutionary rates of HBV DNA in the PBL. The results are analogous to available literature on the compartmentalization of other viruses. The present work thus provides evidence in favor of the compartment-specific abundance, evolution, and emergence of the potent immune escape mutant. These findings have important implications in the field of HBV molecular epidemiology, transmission, transfusion medicine, organ transplantation, and vaccination strategies.Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is the prototype member of the Hepadnaviridae family and classically has been described to be hepatotropic, causing a wide range of clinical and subclinical manifestations of liver disease (57). Nevertheless, studies of HBV-infected human subjects and woodchucks infected with Woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV; an animal model of hepadnaviral infection) have reported different molecular forms of replicative intermediates in the lymphatic cells and have established that hepadnaviruses are strongly lymphotropic in nature (29). Moreover, the results of studies of human subjects as well as with animal models have revealed that the life-long occult persistence of replication- and transmission-competent viruses in lymphatic cells is a strict consequence of hepadnaviral infections (29).More interestingly, in animal models, lymphatic system-restricted occult hepadnaviral infection has been found to be transmissible vertically as an asymptomatic, serologically occult infection exclusively confined to the lymphatic system (29). Earlier we provided evidence that occult HBV persisting in the lymphatic cells are transmissible, specifically to the PBL through horizontal intrafamilial modes (9). These observations clearly indicate important immunological, pathogenic, and epidemiological implications of lymphatic system-restricted hepadnaviral infections. Although the involvement of specific viral variants has been suggested to explain this lymphatic system-restricted hepadnaviral infection and transmission (29), the classical belief that hepatocytes are the primary target and only reservoir of HBV has precluded the genetic characterization of hepadnaviruses from extrahepatic sites.Fascinatingly, despite being classically considered a hepatotropic virus, hepatitis C virus (HCV), belonging to the family Flaviviridae, also shows occult persistence and lymphotropism very similar to that of hepadnaviruses (37). Similarly to WHV, HBV, and HCV, other viruses, including HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), small ruminant lentivirus, and Epstein-Barr virus, also have been shown to infect and persist in different anatomical compartments of the body in addition to their classical target cells (38, 40, 43, 45, 50). Furthermore, recent molecular evolutionary analyses based on envelope sequences of these viruses (e.g., HIV, HCV, small ruminant lentivirus, Epstein-Barr virus, etc.) have established clearly that these viruses undergo selection and independent evolution in diverse tissues, leading to the tissue-specific compartmentalization of viral populations (38, 40, 43, 45, 50). In contrast to other viruses, to the best of our knowledge, methodical molecular evolutionary studies to characterize HBV sequences isolated from extrahepatic sites of HBV-infected subjects have not been reported in the literature.We hypothesized that similar to other viruses, HBV also undergo independent evolution in different compartments of the body under the influence of differential immune pressure. To examine our hypothesis, we used the most easily available lymphatic cells, the peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL), determined the HBV envelope sequences from HBV DNA isolated from these cells, and performed advanced genetic, phylogenetic, and mutational analysis. The results of this work demonstrate a highly compartment-specific preponderance of HBV genetic variants in serum and PBL of the same study population, providing evidence in favor of the compartmentalization of HBV genetic variants. The results and important implications of these findings are discussed in this work.     

Hepatitis C Virus Hypervariable Region 1 Variants Presented on Hepatitis B Virus Capsid-Like Particles Induce Cross-Neutralizing Antibodies

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is still a serious global health burden. Despite improved therapeutic options, a preventative vaccine would be desirable especially in undeveloped countries. Traditionally, highly conserved epitopes are targets for antibody-based prophylactic vaccines. In HCV-infected patients, however, neutralizing antibodies are primarily directed against hypervariable region I (HVRI) in the envelope protein E2. HVRI is the most variable region of HCV, and this heterogeneity contributes to viral persistence and has thus far prevented the development of an effective HVRI-based vaccine. The primary goal of an antibody-based HCV vaccine should therefore be the induction of cross-reactive HVRI antibodies. In this study we approached this problem by presenting selected cross-reactive HVRI variants in a highly symmetric repeated array on capsid-like particles (CLPs). SplitCore CLPs, a novel particulate antigen presentation system derived from the HBV core protein, were used to deliberately manipulate the orientation of HVRI and therefore enable the presentation of conserved parts of HVRI. These HVRI-CLPs induced high titers of cross-reactive antibodies, including neutralizing antibodies. The combination of only four HVRI CLPs was sufficient to induce antibodies cross-reactive with 81 of 326 (24.8%) naturally occurring HVRI peptides. Most importantly, HVRI CLPs with AS03 as an adjuvant induced antibodies with a 10-fold increase in neutralizing capability. These antibodies were able to neutralize infectious HCVcc isolates and 4 of 19 (21%) patient-derived HCVpp isolates. Taken together, these results demonstrate that the induction of at least partially cross-neutralizing antibodies is possible. This approach might be useful for the development of a prophylactic HCV vaccine and should also be adaptable to other highly variable viruses.     

一例中国重型肝炎病人乙型肝炎病毒基因组全序列的测定

用聚合酶链反应（PCR）产物直接和克隆后序列分析，测定1例重型肝炎病人感染的HBV变异毒株全基因组序列，该毒株长3221个碱基，为adw亚型，与同一地区HfuAg阳性无症状携带者感染的adw亚型全序列比较，有35个罕见和独特的核着酸改变，导致27个氨基酸替代，其中前C和C基因变异最多，这一毒株在多种调节序列，包括启动子SPI、SP11、XP、增强子ENI和EN11，也存在变异。但并无日本毒株的X区和ENHll－CP的聚集变异。结果说明我国重肝HBV毒株有独特的变异特点。     

毕赤酵母表达的重组乙肝表面抗原SS1的纯化及性质鉴定

对毕赤酵母（Ｐｉｃｈｉａ ｐａｓｔｏｒｉｓ）表达的重组乙肝表面抗原ＳＳ１的纯化以及蛋白质的理化性质及免疫原性进行了进一步的研究。采用单抗亲和层析的方法,一步纯化即可得到纯度为９５％的纯化蛋白质。ＥＬＩＳＡ和Ｗｅｓｔｅｒｎ印迹鉴定表明,纯化的ＳＳ１融合蛋白同时具有良好的Ｓ和ＰｒｃＳ１抗原性。ＣｓＣ１密度梯度离心和电镜检测的结果则表明,这一重组抗原可以形成与ＨＢＶ亚病毒颗粒类似的颗粒结构。在ＢＡＬＢ／     

丙型肝炎病毒基因突变与免疫逃逸

免疫逃逸（Immune evasion）是指病原体逃避机体免疫监控的现象。在宿主和病毒的长期共同进化过程中,病毒形成了各种逃选机制以逃避宿主的免疫监控,其中病毒基因变异是最主要机制。丙型肝炎病毒（Hepatitis C virus,HCV）在感染个体中表现出极高的基因异质性,能有效地逃逸机体免疫识剐和破坏宿主免疫应答的能力,HCV还可侵袭免疫细胞来抑制机体的免疫功能,而建立HCV持续性感染。了解HCV病毒突变与免疫逃逸机制将会为预防和控制丙型肝炎提供依据。     

人乙型肝炎病毒前表面抗原preS基因的克隆与序列分析

从杭州、兰州两地各一例乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)表面抗原阳性血清中提取病毒DNA,采取PCR技术扩增出前表面抗原(preS)基因片段,重组到质粒载体上,对该基因进行了全序列测定[GenBank索取号CpreS-HZAF325674;preS-LZAF325675].克隆的HBVpreS基因杭州分离物(preS-HZ)和兰州分离物(preS-LZ)全长522个核苷酸,编码174个氨基酸.preS-HZ与已发表的HBVadr亚型上海分离物[8]、北京分离物[9]、日本分离物[5]、HBVadw亚型[10]和ayw亚型[11]preS基因的核苷酸序列同源性分别为96.7%、96.2%、97.3%、88.7%和84.1%,氨基酸序列同源性分别为96.0%、94.9%、97.1%、85.1%和85.4%;preS-LZ与相应序列的核苷酸序列同源性分别为96.4%、96.2%、96.9%、88.7%、83.7%,氨基酸序列同源性分别为94.9%、94.9%、96.0%、85.1%、84.1%.分子进化分析(DNASTAR,1999)表明,克隆的两例HBVpreS基因属于adr亚型.preS-LZ与preS-HZ之间有两个核苷酸变异(对应两个氨基酸变异),相对于以上报道的序列二者含有四个特异的氨基酸突变位点.在免疫保护区内二者具有较好的保守性,可用于表达乙肝重组亚单位疫苗.     

人乙型肝炎病毒前表面抗原preS基因的克隆与序列分析

从杭州、兰州两地各一例乙型肝炎病毒（HBV）表面抗原阳性血清中提取病毒DNA,采取PCR技术扩增出前表面抗原（preS)基因片段,重组到质粒载体上,对该基因进行了全序列测定[GenBank索取号CpreS-HZ:AF 325674;preS-LZ:325675].克隆的HBVpreS基因杭州分离物（preS－HZ）和兰州分离物（preS－LZ）全长522个核苷酸,编码174个氨基酸。preS－HZ与已发表的HBV adr亚型上海分离物、北京分离物、日本分离物、HBVadw亚型和ayw亚型preS基因的核苷酸序列同源性分别为96．7％、96．2％、97．3％、88．7％和84．1％,氨基酸序列同源性分别为96．0％、94．9％、97．1％、85．1％和85．4％;preS－LZ与相应序列的核苷酸序列同源性分别为96．4％、96．2％、96．9％、88．7％、83．7％,氨基酸序列同源性分别为94．9％、94．9％、96．0％、85．1％、84．1％,分子进化分析（ADNASTAR,1999）表明,相对于以上报道的序列二者含有四个特异的氨基酸突变位点,在免疫保护区内二者具有较好的保守性,可用于表达乙肝重组亚单位疫苗。     

Characterization of Acute and Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Genotypes in Canada

Objective

The prevalence and distribution of hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotypes in Canada is not known. Genotypic analysis may contribute to a better understanding of HBV strain distribution and transmission risk.

Methods

HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) positive samples of acute (n = 152) and chronic (n = 1533) HBV submitted for strain analysis or reference genotype testing between 2006 and 2012 were analyzed. The HBsAg coding region was amplified to determine the HBV genotype by INNO-LiPA assay or sequence analysis. Single and multivariate analyses were used to describe genotypes’ associations with known demographic and behavioral risk factors for 126 linked cases of acute HBV.

Results

Nine genotypes were detected (A to I), including mixed infections. Genotype C (HBV/C) dominated within chronic infections while HBV/D and A prevailed among acute HBV cases. History of incarceration and residing with a chronic HBV carrier or injection drug user were the most frequently reported risks for acute HBV infection. Over time, HBV/A increased among both acute and chronic infections, and HBV/C and HBV/D decreased among chronic infections.

Conclusion

Chronic and acute HBV genotypes in Canada differ in the relative distribution and their associations with known risk factors, suggesting different routes of transmission and clinical progression of infection.     

Rare Detection of Occult Hepatitis B Virus Infection in Children of Mothers with Positive Hepatitis B Surface Antigen

The prevalence of occult Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in children was considerably varied from 0.1–64% in different reports. In this study we aimed to investigate the prevalence of occult HBV infection among the children born to mothers with positive hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in Jiangsu, China. Serum samples were collected from 210 children of 207 mothers with positive HBsAg. HBV serological markers were detected by ELISA and HBV DNA was detected by nested PCR. Homology comparison of HBV sequences recovered from the child and mother was used to define the infection. Three children (1.43%) were positive for HBsAg, in whom the HBV pre S and S gene sequence in each child was identical to that in her mother. Of the 207 HBsAg-negative children, nine displayed HBV DNA positive by two nested PCR assays using primers derived from S and C genes. However, the sequence alignment showed that the sequences in each child were considerably different from those in his/her mother. Therefore, the sequences amplified from the children were very likely resultant from the cross-contaminations. Furthermore, the nine children with ‘positive HBV DNA’ were all negative for anti-HBc, and one had anti-HBs 3.42 mIU/ml and eight others had anti-HBs from 72 to >1000 mIU/ml, indicating that the nine children were less likely infected with HBV. Therefore, none of the 207 HBsAg-negative children of HBV-infected mothers was found to have occult HBV infection. We conclude that the prevalence of occult HBV infection in vaccinated children born to HBsAg positive mothers should be extremely low. We recommend that homology comparison of sequences recovered from the child and mother be used to define the occult HBV infection in children born to HBV infected mothers.     

Selection of Virus Variants and Emergence of Virus Escape Mutants after Immunization with an Epitope Vaccine

In this report, we assessed the evolution of the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) response induced by an epitope vaccine. In two macaques immunized with a mixture of lipopeptides derived from simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) Nef and Gag proteins, CTL responses were directed against the same, single epitope of the Nef protein (amino acids 128 to 137) presenting an alanine at position 136 (Nef 128-137/136A). However, after 5 months of SIV infection, peripheral blood mononuclear cells from both macaques lost their ability to be stimulated by autologous SIV-infected cells while still retaining their capacity to generate cytotoxic responses after specific Nef 128-137/136A peptide stimulation. The sequences of the pathogenic viral isolate used for the challenge showed a mixture of several variants. Within the Nef epitopic sequence from amino acids 128 to 137, 82% of viral variants expressed the epitopic peptide Nef 128-137/136A; the remaining variants presented a threonine at position 136 (Nef 128-137/136T). In contrast, sequence analysis of cloned proviral DNA obtained from both macaques 5 months after SIV challenge showed a different pattern of quasi-species variants; 100% of clones presented a threonine at position 136 (Nef 128-137/136T), suggesting the disappearance of viral variants with an alanine at this position under antiviral pressure exerted by Nef 128-137/136A-specific CTLs. In addition, 12 months after SIV challenge, six of eight clones from one macaque presented a glutamic acid at position 131 (Nef 128-137/131E+136T), which was not found in the infecting isolate. Furthermore, CTLs generated very early after SIV challenge were able to lyse cells sensitized with the Nef 128-137/136A epitope. In contrast, lysis was significantly less effective or even did not occur when either the selected peptide Nef 128-137/136T or the escape variant peptide Nef 128-137/131E+136T was used in a target cell sensitization assay. Dose analysis of peptides used to sensitize target cells as well as a major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-peptide stability assay suggested that the selected peptide Nef 128-137/136T has an altered capacity to bind to the MHC. These data suggest that CTL pressure leads to the selection of viral variants and to the emergence of escape mutants and supports the fact that immunization should elicit broad CTL responses.     

马铃薯X病毒载体介导的乙肝病毒表面抗原在烟草中的表达

目的:利用马铃薯X病毒(PVX)表达载体,在本生烟草中表达乙肝病毒表面抗原(HBsAg),为生产植物疫苗提供一条快速高效的新途径.方法:将HBsAg基因克隆进PVX表达载体,电转化农杆菌,侵染本生烟的叶片、茎和根.结果与结论:采用ELISA检测重组HBsAg的表达水平,SDS-PAGE确认其大小,Western印迹分析表明重组蛋白可与鼠抗HBsAg单克隆抗体发生特异性反应.HBsAg蛋白表达量在幼小叶片中远高于已伸展的叶片,在叶片中的表达量远高于茎根;表达量会随侵染后时间发生一定的变化,但因植株而异;重组蛋白在可溶性蛋白中的含量最高可达796.81 ng/mg.     

Epirus Cherry Virus, an Unusual Virus Isolated from Cherry with Rasp-Leaf Symptoms in Greece

Severe rasp-leaf symptoms were observed on a cherry tree in an orchard in northwestern Greece. A virus, given the proposed name Epirus Cherry Virus (EpCV), was mechanícally isolated, which on the basis of biological, morphological and serological properties, appeared different from all known viruses associated with or causing rasp-leaf symptoms on cherry. The virus has at least three types of particles sedimenting as three components in a sucrose density gradient. No serological relations were found with other similar viruses.