Molecular phylogeny of the fungus gnat family Mycetophilidae (Diptera,Mycetophiliformia)

Abstract A molecular phylogeny of the fungus gnat family Mycetophilidae based on the nuclear 18S, 28S, and the mitochondrial 16S rRNA genes is presented. The total alignment included 58 taxa and 1704 bp. The family was recovered as monophyletic in parsimony and Bayesian analyses. In the Bayesian analysis, Mycetophilinae and its two tribes, Mycetophilini and Exechiini, were monophyletic with good statistical support. The subfamily Mycomyinae was found consistently in a sister‐group relationship to Mycetophilinae. Gnoristinae was rendered paraphyletic, subtending Mycomyinae and Mycetophilinae. Within Gnoristinae, the genera Coelosia Winnertz, Boletina Staeger, Gnoriste Meigen group with Docosia Winnertz, usually considered to be a member of Leiinae. No support was found for the monophyly of the subfamilies Sciophilinae and Leiinae.     

Phylogeny of the treehoppers (Insecta: Hemiptera: Membracidae): evidence from two nuclear genes

We present a molecular systematic investigation of relationships among family-group taxa of Membracidae, comprising nearly 3.5 kb of nucleotide sequence data from the nuclear genes elongation factor-1alpha (EF-1alpha: 958 bp) and 28S ribosomal DNA (28S rDNA: 2363 bp); data partitions are analyzed separately and in combination for 79 taxa. Analysis of the combined sequence data provided a better-resolved and more robust hypothesis of membracid phylogeny than did separate analyses of the individual genes. Results support the monophyly of the family Membracidae and indicate the presence of two major lineages (Centrotinae + Stegaspidinae + Centrodontinae and Darninae + Membracinae + Smiliinae). Within Membracidae, molecular data support the following assertions: (1) the previously unplaced genera Antillotolania and Deiroderes form a monophyletic group with Microcentrini; (2) Centrodontini and Nessorhinini are monophyletic clades that arise independently from within the Centrotinae; (3) Centrotinae is paraphyletic with respect to Centrodontinae; (4) the subfamily Membracinae is monophyletic and possibly allied with the darnine tribe Cymbomorphini; (5) the subfamily Darninae is paraphyletic; (6) the subfamily Smiliinae is paraphyletic, with molecular evidence indicating the exclusion of Micrutalini and perhaps Acutalini and Ceresini; and (7) Membracidae arose and diversified in the New World with multiple subsequent colonizations of the Old World. Our phylogenetic results suggest that morphology-based classifications of the Membracidae need to be reevaluated in light of emerging molecular evidence.     

Phylogenetic analysis of the Monocotylidae (Monogenea) inferred from 28S rDNA sequences

The current classification of the Monocotylidae (Monogenea) is based on a phylogeny generated from morphological characters. The present study tests the morphological phylogenetic hypothesis using molecular methods. Sequences from domains C2 and D1 and the partial domains C1 and D2 from the 28S rDNA gene for 26 species of monocotylids from six of the seven subfamilies were used. Trees were generated using maximum parsimony, neighbour joining and maximum likelihood algorithms. The maximum parsimony tree, with branches showing less than 70% bootstrap support collapsed, had a topology identical to that obtained using the maximum likelihood analysis. The neighbour joining tree, with branches showing less than 70% support collapsed, differed only in its placement of Heterocotyle capricornensis as the sister group to the Decacotylinae clade. The molecular tree largely supports the subfamilies established using morphological characters. Differences are primarily how the subfamilies are related to each other. The monophyly of the Calicotylinae and Merizocotylinae and their sister group relationship is supported by high bootstrap values in all three methods, but relationships within the Merizocotylinae are unclear. Merizocotyle is paraphyletic and our data suggest that Mycteronastes and Thaumatocotyle, which were synonymized with Merizocotyle after the morphological cladistic analysis, should perhaps be resurrected as valid genera. The monophyly of the Monocotylinae and Decacotylinae is also supported by high bootstrap values. The Decacotylinae, which was considered previously to be the sister group to the Calicotylinae plus Merizocotylinae, is grouped in an unresolved polychotomy with the Monocotylinae and members of the Heterocotylinae. According to our molecular data, the Heterocotylinae is paraphyletic. Molecular data support a sister group relationship between Troglocephalus rhinobatidis and Neoheterocotyle rhinobatidis to the exclusion of the other species of Neoheterocotyle and recognition of Troglocephalus renders Neoheterocotyle paraphyletic. We propose Troglocephalus incertae sedis. An updated classification and full species list of the Monocotylidae is provided.     

Phylogenetic analysis of the Monocotylidae (Monogenea) inferred from 28S rDNA sequences

The current classification of the Monocotylidae (Monogenea) is based on a phylogeny generated from morphological characters. The present study tests the morphological phylogenetic hypothesis using molecular methods. Sequences from domains C2 and D1 and the partial domains C1 and D2 from the 28S rDNA gene for 26 species of monocotylids from six of the seven subfamilies were used. Trees were generated using maximum parsimony, neighbour joining and maximum likelihood algorithms. The maximum parsimony tree, with branches showing less than 70% bootstrap support collapsed, had a topology identical to that obtained using the maximum likelihood analysis. The neighbour joining tree, with branches showing less than 70% support collapsed, differed only in its placement of Heterocotyle capricornensis as the sister group to the Decacotylinae clade. The molecular tree largely supports the subfamilies established using morphological characters. Differences are primarily how the subfamilies are related to each other. The monophyly of the Calicotylinae and Merizocotylinae and their sister group relationship is supported by high bootstrap values in all three methods, but relationships within the Merizocotylinae are unclear. Merizocotyle is paraphyletic and our data suggest that Mycteronastes and Thaumatocotyle, which were synonymized with Merizocotyle after the morphological cladistic analysis, should perhaps be resurrected as valid genera. The monophyly of the Monocotylinae and Decacotylinae is also supported by high bootstrap values. The Decacotylinae, which was considered previously to be the sister group to the Calicotylinae plus Merizocotylinae, is grouped in an unresolved polychotomy with the Monocotylinae and members of the Heterocotylinae. According to our molecular data, the Heterocotylinae is paraphyletic. Molecular data support a sister group relationship between Troglocephalus rhinobatidis and Neoheterocotyle rhinobatidis to the exclusion of the other species of Neoheterocotyle and recognition of Troglocephalus renders Neoheterocotyle paraphyletic. We propose Troglocephalus incertae sedis. An updated classification and full species list of the Monocotylidae is provided.     

Molecular phylogeny of the gobioid fishes (Teleostei: Perciformes: Gobioidei)

The phylogeny of groups within Gobioidei is examined with molecular sequence data. Gobioidei is a speciose, morphologically diverse group of teleost fishes, most of which are small, benthic, and marine. Efforts to hypothesize relationships among the gobioid groups have been hampered by the prevalence of reductive evolution among goby species; such reduction can make identification of informative morphological characters particularly difficult. Gobies have been variously grouped into two to nine families, several with included subfamilies, but most existing taxonomies are not phylogenetic and few cladistic hypotheses of relationships among goby groups have been advanced. In this study, representatives of eight of the nine gobioid familes (Eleotridae, Odontobutidae, Xenisthmidae, Gobiidae, Kraemeriidae, Schindleriidae, Microdesmidae, and Ptereleotridae), selected to sample broadly from the range of goby diversity, were examined. Complete sequence from the mitochondrial ND1, ND2, and COI genes (3573 bp) was used in a cladistic parsimony analysis to hypothesize relationships among the gobioid groups. A single most parsimonious topology was obtained, with decay indices indicating strong support for most nodes. Major phylogenetic conclusions include that Xenisthmidae is part of Eleotridae, and Eleotridae is paraphyletic with respect to a clade composed of Gobiidae, Microdesmidae, Ptereleotridae, Kraemeriidae, and Schindleriidae. Within this five-family clade, two clades are recovered. One includes Gobionellinae, which is paraphyletic with respect to Kraemeriidae, Sicydiinae, Oxudercinae, and Amblyopinae. The other contains Gobiinae, also paraphyletic, and including Microdesmidae, Ptereleotridae, and Schindleriidae. Previous morphological evidence for goby groupings is discussed; the phylogenetic hypothesis indicates that the morphological reduction observed in many goby species has been derived several times independently.     

Molecular analysis of the biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae), based on mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit 2

Sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit 2 gene (cox2) were determined for 14 species from the family Ceratopogonidae, representing 12 genera and all five subfamilies, along with six representatives of other nematoceran families. The purpose was to develop a molecular phylogeny of the Ceratopogonidae, and interpret the phylogenetic position of the family within the infraorder Culicomorpha. These taxa have been analysed using cladistic methodology which, in combination with an excellent fossil record, provides a well established morphological phylogeny. Sequence analysis of cox2 revealed a high degree of sequence divergence among the species, reflecting in part the antiquity of the family, but also a significant acceleration of sequence evolution in the ceratopogonids compared to other nematoceran Diptera. Phylogenetic reconstruction by neighbor-joining and maximum parsimony gave strong support for an early separation of an ancient lineage that includes the two genera, Austroconops and Leptoconops, from the remainder of the family. The results support the existence of a clade that includes two subfamilies, Dasyheleinae and Forcipomyiinae, and this clade appears as sister to the remaining subfamily, Ceratopogoninae. The molecular phylogeny also supports monophyly of the Ceratopogonidae, and either a sister or paraphyletic relationship of this family with the Chironomidae.     

A large‐scale molecular phylogeny of flesh flies (Diptera: Sarcophagidae)

The available data for Sarcophagidae in GenBank were analysed in order to reconstruct the most comprehensive phylogeny to date. GenBank was explored for nine markers that are commonly used in various molecular and phylogenetic studies of flesh flies. We obtained data for 187 species and constructed an aligned dataset with 9241 characters. However, the matrix suffered from 74% missing data due to a low number of sequences for some markers and in most of the cases only short fragments of the analysed genes were available. The reconstructed tree was taxonomically biased towards the subfamilies Paramacronychiinae (12% of the described species) and Sarcophaginae (8.6% of the described species) and specifically the genus Sarcophaga. The third subfamily Miltogramminae was represented by only 0.7% of described species. Moreover, about half of the included species were of forensic importance, while the percentage of such species in the entire family was estimated at 7%. Many nodes had very low support, so in order to increase the support and thereby identify a ‘core topology’, we pruned ‘rogue’ taxa and applied different substitution models. Both strategies improved support considerably, although some nodes still were left unresolved. An analysis of the distribution of bootstrap values across chronograms showed that the weakest phylogenetic signal is restricted to that part of the tree which coincides with the onset of rapid radiations mainly within the genus Sarcophaga. Our study is concordant with phylogenies obtained by other authors, with the most noteworthy exception being the subfamily Paramacronychiinae emerging as paraphyletic with regard to the Miltogramminae, which is in strong conflict with morphological evidence. We discuss the new findings in the light of traditional taxonomical classifications of Sarcophagidae and recent molecular studies.     

基于mtDNA和rDNA基因序列的中国按蚊属塞蚊亚属种类的系统发育研究（双翅目：蚊科）

【目的】应用mtDNA和rDNA基因特征重建中国按蚊属塞蚊亚属已知种类的系统发育关系, 以阐明亚属内各蚊种的亲缘关系。【方法】对采自中国的按蚊属塞蚊亚属Anopheles (Cellia) 20种蚊的mtDNA-COⅡ和 rDNA-28S-D3序列进行测定和分析, 以按蚊属按蚊亚属Anopheles (Anopheles)的中华按蚊An. (An.) sinensis和赫坎按蚊An. (An.) hyrcanus为外群, 采用COⅡ和D3单基因, 以及“COⅡ+D3”联合数据组以邻接法（NJ）、 最大简约法（MP）、 最大似然法（ML）和贝叶斯法（BI）等重建这些种类的系统发育树。【结果】 mtDNA-COⅡ和rDNA-28S-D3序列的长度范围分别为685 bp和375～410 bp, 在塞蚊亚属蚊种间的遗传距离分别为0.015～0.117和0.003～0.111。各系统树显示外群被合理分开,除在COⅡ树中新塞蚊系为并系外,各系均聚为单系群,新迈蚊系和迈蚊系亲缘关系最近。联合数据组构建的系统合意树显示中国塞蚊亚属各蚊种形成4支,除伪威氏按蚊与多斑按蚊种团未聚为单系群外,其他各种团和复合体成员种均分别聚在一起,各分支的置信值均大于50%。【结论】本研究获得的分子系统发育树清楚地显示了中国按蚊属塞蚊亚属各种类及系之间的系统发育关系, 对其分类和防治研究具有参考价值。     

Molecular phylogeny of Anthelidae and other bombycoid taxa (Lepidoptera: Bombycoidea)

Abstract.  Based on DNA sequences of the fusion protein carbamoylphosphate synthetase/aspartate transcarbamylase/dihydroorotase (CAD; 680 bp) and elongation factor-1α (Ef-1α; 1240 bp); the first molecular phylogeny of the moth family Anthelidae and its placement within the Bombycoidea sensu Brock (1971) (= bombycoid complex sensu Minet, 1994 ) is proposed. The results strongly support the monophyly of the family Anthelidae and its subfamilies Munychryiinae and Anthelinae, but demonstrate the vast polyphyly of its main genus Anthela Walker, 1855. The proposed phylogeny suggests that grass feeding, as apparent from some pest records, probably is an ancestral trait within the subfamily Anthelinae. Evolutionary relationships of the family Anthelidae and of most parts of the Bombycoidea remain obscure. However, the results contradict many of the widely accepted phylogenetic hypotheses within the Bombycoidea proposed by Minet (1994 : Entomologica scandinavica , 25, 63–88). The Brahmaeidae are paraphyletic relative to the Lemoniidae ( syn.nov. ), and the current concept of Bombycidae is polyphyletic, with the bombycid subfamily Apatelodinae being part of a monophylum comprising Brahmaeidae / Lemoniidae, Eupterotidae and Apatelodidae ( stat.rev .).     

Phylogeny of the Drosophila mesophragmatica group (Diptera, Drosophilidae): an example of Andean evolution

The mesophragmatica group of Drosophila belongs to the virilis-repleta radiation of the Drosophila subgenus. This group comprises 13 Neotropical species that are endemic to the South-American continent and seem to be fundamentally Andean in their distribution. The mesophragmatica-group phylogeny has been inferred previously by other authors based on morphological, cytological, and isozyme analyses. However, the relationships within the group have not yet been completely resolved, although its monophyletic origin has already been confirmed by molecular data. This work attempts to enhance the molecular approach to the relationships among the species of the mesophragmatica group, using both nuclear and mitochondrial markers. Phylogenetic analyses were performed using fragments of the nuclear alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh; 631 bp), alpha-methyldopa (Amd; 1211 bp), dopa-decarboxylase (Ddc; 1105 bp), and hunchback (Hb; 687 bp) genes and the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit II (COII; 672 bp) gene, and included a total of 4306 bp. The sequences obtained for eight representatives of the mesophragmatica group were analyzed both individually and in combination by distance methods, maximum parsimony, and maximum likelihood. Our results support subdivision of the mesophragmatica group into three main lineages: the first is composed of D. viracochi; the second comprises a clade grouping the sibling species D. pavani and D. gaucha; and the third encompasses D. gasici, D. brncici, and D. mesophragmatica. The best supported scenario suggests that D. viracochi is an early offshoot in the mesophragmatica group, with this and other early branchings occuring in the Pliocene/Pleistocene Epochs, possibly associated with Andean glacial refuges. Also based on the phylogenies obtained, we present a genealogical view of the evolution of previously described characters within the group.     

Phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history of the shrimp genus Penaeus s.l. derived from mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial DNA sequences were used to reconstruct the phylogeny of the Penaeus s.l. genus of marine shrimp. This phylogeny was used to test the validity of hypotheses on the species groupings, in particular the subgenus/genus subdivision, and on the species' evolutionary history. Newly derived sequences of both 16S rRNA and COI genes from 19 species of Penaeus s.l. and one outgroup were combined with previous sequences from seven additional species to allow analysis of 26 of the 28 recognised (or nominated) species. Phylogenetic analyses do not support the validity of all the previously created six subgenera (or genera) but provide evidence for division of the genus into two previously unrecognised clades (Melicertus+Marsupenaeus and Penaeus s.s.+Fenneropenaeus+Farfantepenaeus+Litopenaeus). A key conclusion from a previous molecular study, that the subgenera Farfantepenaeus and Litopenaeus are paraphyletic, was rejected. The molecular data support an Indo-West Pacific origin of the genus, with a single relatively recent colonisation of the Western Hemisphere, and subsequent subdivision into two clades prior to the emergence of the Panamanian isthmus.     

Molecular phylogeny of the fungus gnat family Diadocidiidae and its position within the infraorder Bibionomorpha (Diptera)

The molecular phylogeny of the family Diadocidiidae (Diptera: Sciaroidea) is reconstructed based on the combined analysis of four mitochondrial (12S, 16S, COI, cytB) and two nuclear (28S, ITS2) gene markers. All the analyses strongly support Diadocidiidae as a monophyletic group. Genus Diadocidia Ruthe, 1831 includes monophyletic subgenera Diadocidia s. str. and Taidocidia Papp and ?ev?ík (Acta Zoologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 51 , 2005b, 329). The monophyly of Adidocidia La?tovka & Matile, 1972 was not confirmed. The position of Diadocidiidae and relationships of the families within the infraorder Bibionomorpha are demonstrated in the analyses based on three gene markers (28S, 12S and 16S). The Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses of 10 families of Bibionomorpha revealed Sciaridae as the closest relative of Diadocidiidae. Most of the currently recognised extant families of Bibionomorpha proved to be monophyletic. The family Keroplatidae revealed as paraphyletic, with the genera of Macrocerinae being more related to Cecidomyiidae, but the support is low.     

Phylogeny of caddisflies (Insecta, Trichoptera)

Trichoptera are holometabolous insects with aquatic larvae that, together with the Lepidoptera, comprise the Amphiesmenoptera. Previous phylogenetic hypotheses and progress on our ongoing data collection are summarized. Fragments of the large and small subunit nuclear ribosomal RNAs (D1, D3, V4–5), the nuclear elongation factor 1 alpha gene and a fragment of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 (COI) were sequenced, and molecular data were combined with previously published morphological data. Equally and differentially weighted parsimony analyses were conducted in order to present a phylogeny of Trichoptera, including 43 of 45 families. Our phylogeny closely resembles that proposed by Herbert Ross with respect to the relationships among suborders, with a monophyletic Annulipalpia at the base of the tree, and a clade consisting of Spicipalpia plus a monophyletic Integripalpia. The monophyly of Spicipalpia is weakly supported in the combined equally weighted analysis, and Spicipalpia is paraphyletic in the differentially weighted analysis. Within Integripalpia, our phylogeny recovered monophyletic Plenitentoria, Brevitentoria and Sericostomatoidea. Leptoceroidea was unresolved in the equally weighted analysis and monophyletic in the differentially weighted analysis. Within Annulipalpia, we recovered a basal but paraphyletic Philopotamoidea and a monophyletic Hydropsychoidea.     

Molecular systematics and diversification of the Asian scimitar babblers (Timaliidae, Aves) based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences

The Asian scimitar babblers, including the genus Pomatorhinus and Xiphirhynchus, are a small group of babblers characterized by long down-curved bills and a distribution throughout East and Southeast Asia. To infer the molecular phylogeny of this group and their divergence time, we examined sequences of multiple fragments including two entire mitochondrial genes and four nuclear introns (4352 bp in total) from multiple samples of eight of the nine recognized species of Asian scimitar babblers. The phylogeny resulting from the concatenated multi-locus dataset suggests that Pomatorhinus is paraphyletic. Due to its paraphyly, we propose dividing the traditional genus Pomatorhinus into two morphologically and genetically diagnosable genera: Pomatorhinus and Erythrogenys. Results of the molecular dating based on the conventional mitochondrial DNA divergence rate indicates that the diversification of these babblers is likely congruent with the historical climatic events. Our findings shed light on the diversification of avian species in southern Asia, a poorly studied biodiversity hotspot.     

Anchored hybrid enrichment provides new insights into the phylogeny and evolution of longhorned beetles (Cerambycidae)

Cerambycidae is a species‐rich family of mostly wood‐feeding (xylophagous) beetles containing nearly 35 000 known species. The higher‐level phylogeny of C erambycidae has never been robustly reconstructed using molecular phylogenetic data or a comprehensive sample of higher taxa, and its internal relationships and evolutionary history remain the subjects of ongoing debate. We reconstructed the higher‐level phylogeny of C erambycidae using phylogenomic data from 522 single copy nuclear genes, generated via anchored hybrid enrichment. Our taxon sample (31 C hrysomeloidea, four outgroup taxa: two C urculionoidea and two C ucujoidea) included exemplars of all families and 23 of 30 subfamilies of C hrysomeloidea (18 of 19 non‐chrysomelid C hrysomeloidea), with a focus on the large family C erambycidae. Our results reveal a monophyletic C erambycidae s.s. in all but one analysis, and a polyphyletic C erambycidae s.l. When monophyletic, C erambycidae s.s. was sister to the family D isteniidae. Relationships among the subfamilies of C erambycidae s.s. were also recovered with strong statistical support except for C erambycinae being made paraphyletic by Dorcasomus A udinet‐S erville (D orcasominae) in the nucleotide (but not amino acid) trees. Most other chrysomeloid families represented by more than one terminal taxon – C hrysomelidae, D isteniidae, V esperidae and O rsodacnidae – were monophyletic, but M egalopodidae was rendered paraphyletic by Cheloderus G ray (O xypeltidae). Our study corroborates some relationships within C hrysomeloidea that were previously inferred from morphological data, while also reporting several novel relationships. The present work thus provides a robust framework for future, more deeply taxon‐sampled, phylogenetic and evolutionary studies of the families and subfamilies of C erambycidae s.l. and other C hrysomeloidea.     

Molecular phylogeny of the Blastocladiomycota (Fungi) based on nuclear ribosomal DNA

The Blastocladiomycota is a recently described phylum of ecologically diverse zoosporic fungi whose species have not been thoroughly sampled and placed within a molecular phylogeny. In this study, we investigated the phylogeny of the Blastocladiomycota based on ribosomal DNA sequences from strains identified by traditional morphological and ultrastructural characters. Our results support the monophyly of the Coelomomycetaceae and Physodermataceae but the Blastocladiaceae and Catenariaceae are paraphyletic or polyphyletic. The data support two clades within Allomyces with strains identified as Allomyces arbusculus in both clades, suggesting that species concepts in Allomyces are in need of revision. A clade of Catenaria species isolated from midge larvae group separately from other Catenaria species, suggesting that this genus may need revision. In the Physodermataceae, Urophlyctis species cluster with a clade of Physoderma species. The algal parasite Paraphysoderma sedebokerensis nom. prov. clusters sister to other taxa in the Physodermataceae. Catenomyces persicinus, which has been classified in the Catenariaceae, groups with the Chytridiomycota rather than Blastocladiomycota. The rDNA operon seems to be suitable for classification within the Blastocladiomycota and distinguishes among genera; however, this region alone is not suitable to determine the position of the Blastocladiomycota among other basal fungal phyla with statistical support. A focused effort to find and isolate, or directly amplify DNA from additional taxa will be necessary to evaluate diversity in this phylum. We provide this rDNA phylogeny as a preliminary framework to guide further taxon and gene sampling and to facilitate future ecological, morphological, and systematic studies.     

Signal through the noise? Phylogeny of the Tachinidae (Diptera) as inferred from morphological evidence

The oestroid family Tachinidae represents one of the most diverse lineages of insect parasitoids. Despite their broad distribution, diversity and important role as biological control agents, the phylogeny of this family remains poorly known. Here, we review the history of tachinid systematics and present the first quantitative phylogenetic analysis of the family based on morphological data. Cladistic analyses were conducted using 135 morphological characters from 492 species belonging to 180 tachinid genera, including the four currently recognized subfamilies (Dexiinae, Exoristinae, Phasiinae, Tachininae) and all major tribes. We used characters of eggs, first‐instar larvae and adults of both sexes. We examined the effects of implied weighting by reanalysing the data with varying concavity factors. Our analysis generally supports the subfamily groupings Dexiinae + Phasiinae and Tachininae + Exoristinae, with only the Exoristinae and the Phasiinae reconstructed as monophyletic assemblages under a wide range of weighting schemes. Under these conditions, the Dexiinae, which were previously considered a well‐established monophyletic assemblage, are reconstructed as being paraphyletic with respect to the Phasiinae. The Tachininae are reconstructed as a paraphyletic grade from which the monophyletic Exoristinae arose. The Exoristinae are reconstructed as a monophyletic lineage, but phylogenetic relationships within the subfamily are largely unresolved. We further explored the evolution of oviposition strategy and found that the oviparous groups are nested within ovolarviparous assemblages, suggesting that ovipary may have evolved several times independently from ovolarviparous ancestors. This counterintuitive pattern is a novel hypothesis suggested by the results of this analysis. Finally, two major patterns emerge when considering host associations across our phylogeny under equal weights: (i) although more than 60% of tachinids are parasitoids of Lepidoptera larvae, none of the basal clades is unambiguously associated with Lepidoptera as a primitive condition, suggesting that tachinids were slow to colonize these hosts, but then radiated extensively on them; and (ii) there is general agreement between host use and monophyly of the major lineages.     

Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the Neotropical cichlid fish tribe Cichlasomatini (Teleostei: Cichlidae: Cichlasomatinae)

We have conducted the first comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the tribe Cichlasomatini including all valid genera as well as important species of questionable generic status. To recover the relationships among cichlasomatine genera and to test their monophyly we analyzed sequences from two mitochondrial (16S rRNA, cytochrome b) and one nuclear marker (first intron of S7 ribosomal gene) totalling 2236 bp. Our data suggest that all genera except Aequidens are monophyletic, but we found important disagreements between the traditional morphological relationships and the phylogeny based on our molecular data. Our analyses support the following conclusions: (a) Aequidens sensu stricto is paraphyletic, including also Cichlasoma (CA clade); (b) Krobia is not closely related to Bujurquina and includes also the Guyanan Aequidens species A. potaroensis and probably A. paloemeuensis (KA clade). (c) Bujurquina and Tahuantinsuyoa are sister groups, closely related to an undescribed genus formed by the 'Aequidens'pulcher-'Aequidens'rivulatus groups (BTA clade). (d) Nannacara (plus Ivanacara) and Cleithracara are found as sister groups (NIC clade). Acaronia is most probably the sister group of the BTA clade, and Laetacara may be the sister group of this clade. Estimation of divergence times suggests that the divergence of Cichlasomatini started around 44Mya with the vicariance between coastal rivers of the Guyanas (KA and NIC clades) and remaining cis-andean South America, followed by evolution of the Acaronia-Laetacara-BTA clade in Western Amazon, and the CA clade in the Eastern Amazon. Vicariant divergence has played importantly in evolution of cichlasomatine genera, with dispersal limited to later range extension of species within genera.     

Phylogenetic synthesis of morphological and molecular data reveals new insights into the higher‐level classification of Tipuloidea (Diptera)

Tipuloidea, the crane flies, are a diverse lineage of true flies (Insecta: Diptera) whose phylogenetic classification and taxonomy remain a challenge. Here we present the results of a quantitative phylogenetic analysis of Tipuloidea based on combined morphological characters (adult, larvae and pupae) and nuclear gene sequence data (28S rDNA and CAD). Forty‐five species, from 44 genera and subgenera, were sampled, representing the four putative families of Tipuloidea (Cylindrotomidae, Limoniidae, Pediciidae and Tipulidae sensu stricto). Analyses of individual datasets, although differing in overall topology, support the monophyly of several major lineages within Tipuloidea. Parsimony and Bayesian analyses using individual morphological and molecular datasets resulted in incongruent topologies. Increased resolution and tree support was obtained when both datasets (morphology and genes) were combined, in both combined evidence parsimony and Bayesian analyses, than when analysed separately. The recovered consensus phylogeny was not consistent with any previously proposed Tipuloidea classification, with previous importance assigned to character states shown here to represent losses and reversals seen as a major factor influencing erroneous classification. The results provided here, together with evidence from previous analyses, were used to append the Tipuloidea classification to supported evolutionary lineages. Tipuloidea is presented as two families: Pediciidae and Tipulidae. Pediciidae is recovered as the sister group to all remaining Tipuloidea. Our current phylogenetic hypothesis is not consistent with the existing subfamilial classification of the ‘Limoniidae’, which is paraphyletic with respect to a well‐supported Tipulinae + Cylindrotominae clade, whereas the three ‘limoniid’ subfamilies are para‐ or polyphyletic. The recognition of ‘Limoniidae’ as a valid monophyletic family is discouraged and the subfamilies of ‘Limoniidae’ are amended and placed within Tipulidae. A revised phylogenetic classification is proposed for the crane flies based on a synthesis of evidence from multiple genes and morphology.