A review of the leishmanin skin test: A neglected test for a neglected disease

The leishmanin skin test (LST) has been used for decades to detect exposure and immunity to the parasite Leishmania, the causative agent of the neglected tropical disease leishmaniasis. In the LST, Leishmania antigen (leishmanin) is intradermally injected into the forearm. In an individual who has been previously infected, a delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction results in a measurable induration at the site of the injection, indicating that previous exposure to Leishmania has resulted in the development of cell-mediated immunity. LST positivity is associated with long-lasting protective immunity against reinfection, most notably as reported for visceral leishmaniasis (VL). Despite efforts over the past few decades, leishmanin antigen is no longer produced under good manufacturing practice (GMP) conditions anywhere in the world. Consequently, the use of the LST in epidemiological studies has declined in favor of serological and molecular tests. In this review, we provide a historical overview of the LST and justification for the reintroduction of leishmanin. A GMP-grade leishmanin can be used to detect immunity in vivo by the LST and can be investigated for use in an interferon-γ release assay (IGRA), which may serve as an in vitro version of the LST. The LST will be a valuable tool for surveillance and epidemiological studies in support of the VL elimination programs and as a surrogate marker of immunity in vaccine clinical trials.MethodsA review of the literature was conducted using PubMed as the primary database, with MeSH terms “leishmanin skin test” OR “Montenegro test” OR “Montenegro skin test.” Articles written in English that describe the history or standardization of leishmanin, the use of leishmanin in an IGRA, or the use of the LST in epidemiological studies or vaccine trials were prioritized in our appraisal of the literature.     

Simultaneous effects of night-time temperature and an allelochemical on performance of an insect herbivore

One effect of global warming may be an increase in night-time temperatures with daytime temperatures remaining largely unchanged. We examined this potential effect of global warming on the performance of tobacco hornworm larvae, Manduca sexta (Sphingidae), by manipulating night-time temperature and dietary rutin levels simultaneously under a 12 light:12 dark photoregime. All four thermal regimes (26:14, 26:18, 26:22, and 26:26° C) had a daytime temperature of 26° C, with the night-time temperature increased from 14 to 26° C by increments of 4° C. Dietary rutin levels (0, 10 and 20 moles g^–1 fresh weight of diet) reflected those occurring naturally in the leaves of tomato, a preferred host plant of M. sexta. With low night-time temperatures (14 and 18° C), rutin had a negative linear effect on developmental rate, relative growth rate and relative consumption rate of the caterpillars. However, at a night-time temperature of 22° C, rutin had a negative non-linear effect. At a night-time temperature of 26° C, rutin had a negative linear impact but less so than at the other nightime temperatures. Likewise, the negative effect of rutin on molting duration was mitigated as night-time temperature increased. Final larval weight decreased linearly with increased dietary rutin concentrations. Total amount of food ingested was not affected by either rutin or thermal regime. As expected, the caterpillars developed faster under an alternating 26:14° C regime than a constant 20° C regime (the average temperature for the alternating regime), but the effect of rutin depended on the thermal regime. Switching daytime and night-time temperatures had no statistically significant effect on caterpillar performance. Overall, the effect of rutin on rates of larval performance was greater at some levels of warmer nights but damped at another level. These results indicate that the potential effect of warmer nights on insect performance is not a simple function of temperature because there can be interactions between night-time temperature and dietary allelochemicals.     

Assessment of the dynamics of urban surface temperatures and air pollution related to COVID-19 in a densely populated City environment in East Java

The COVID-19 pandemic that has hit the whole world has caused losses in various aspects. Several countries have implemented lockdowns to curb the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus that caused death. However, for developing countries such as Indonesia, it is not suitable for lockdown because it considers the economic recession. Instead, the Large-scale Social Restrictions (LSSR) regulation is applied, the same as the partial lockdown. Thus, it is hypothesized that implementing LSSR that limits anthropogenic activities can reduce heat emissions and air pollution. Utilization of remote sensing data such as Terra-MODIS LST and Sentinel-5P images to investigate short-term trends (i.e., comparison between baseline year and COVID-19 year) in surface temperature, Surface Urban Heat Islands Intensity (SUHII), and air pollution such as NO₂, CO, and O₃ in Malang City and Surabaya City, East Java Province. Spatial downscaling of LST using the Random Forest Regression technique was also carried out to transform the spatial resolution of the Terra-MODIS LST image to make it feasible on a city scale. Raster re-gridding was also implemented to refine the Sentinel-5P spatial resolution. The accuracy of LST spatial downscaling results is quite satisfactory in both cities. Surface temperatures in both cities slightly decreased (below 1 °C) during LSSR was applied (P < 0.05). SUHII in both cities experienced a slight increase in both cities during LSSR. NO₂ gas was reduced significantly (P < 0.05) in Malang City (∼38%) and Surabaya City (∼28%) during LSSR phase due to reduced vehicle traffic and restrictions on anthropogenic activities. However, CO and O₃ gases did not indicate anomaly during LSSR. Moreover, this study provides insight into the correlation between SUHII change and the distribution of air pollution in both cities during the pandemic year. Air temperature and wind speed are also added as meteorological factors to examine their effect on air pollution. The proposed models of spatial downscaling LST and re-gridding satellite-based air pollution can help decision-makers control local air quality in the long and short term in the future. In addition, this model can also be applied to other ecological research, especially the input variables for ecological spatial modeling.     

Climate change and heat-related mortality in six cities Part 1: model construction and validation

Heat waves are expected to increase in frequency and magnitude with climate change. The first part of a study to produce projections of the effect of future climate change on heat-related mortality is presented. Separate city-specific empirical statistical models that quantify significant relationships between summer daily maximum temperature (T _max) and daily heat-related deaths are constructed from historical data for six cities: Boston, Budapest, Dallas, Lisbon, London, and Sydney. ‘Threshold temperatures’ above which heat-related deaths begin to occur are identified. The results demonstrate significantly lower thresholds in ‘cooler’ cities exhibiting lower mean summer temperatures than in ‘warmer’ cities exhibiting higher mean summer temperatures. Analysis of individual ‘heat waves’ illustrates that a greater proportion of mortality is due to mortality displacement in cities with less sensitive temperature–mortality relationships than in those with more sensitive relationships, and that mortality displacement is no longer a feature more than 12 days after the end of the heat wave. Validation techniques through residual and correlation analyses of modelled and observed values and comparisons with other studies indicate that the observed temperature–mortality relationships are represented well by each of the models. The models can therefore be used with confidence to examine future heat-related deaths under various climate change scenarios for the respective cities (presented in Part 2).     

Thermal ecology and baseline energetic requirements of a large‐bodied ectotherm suggest resilience to climate change

1. Most studies on how rising temperatures will impact terrestrial ectotherms have focused on single populations or multiple sympatric species. Addressing the thermal and energetic implications of climatic variation on multiple allopatric populations of a species will help us better understand how a species may be impacted by altered climates.
2. We used eight years of thermal and behavioral data collected from four populations of Pacific rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus) living in climatically distinct habitat types (inland and coastal) to determine the field‐active and laboratory‐preferred body temperatures, thermoregulatory metrics, and maintenance energetic requirements of snakes from each population.
3. Physical models showed that thermal quality was best at coastal sites, but inland snakes thermoregulated more accurately despite being in more thermally constrained environments. Projected increases of 1 and 2°C in ambient temperature result in an increase in overall thermal quality at both coastal and inland sites.
4. Population differences in modeled standard metabolic rate estimates were driven by body size and not field‐active body temperature, with inland snakes requiring 1.6× more food annually than coastal snakes.
5. All snakes thermoregulated with high accuracy, suggesting that small increases in ambient temperature are unlikely to impact the maintenance energetic requirements of individual snakes and that some species of large‐bodied reptiles may be robust to modest thermal perturbations under conservative climate change predictions.

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How well does a commercially available wearable device measure sleep in young athletes?

ABSTRACT

The validity of a commercially available wearable device for measuring total sleep time was examined in a sample of well-trained young athletes during night-time sleep periods and daytime naps. Participants wore a FitBit HR Charge on their non-dominant wrist and had electrodes attached to their face and scalp to enable polysomnographic recordings of sleep in the laboratory. The FitBit automatically detected 24/30 night-time sleep periods but only 6/20 daytime naps. Compared with polysomnography, the FitBit overestimated total sleep time by an average of 52 ± 152 min for night-time sleep periods, and by 4 ± 8 min for daytime naps. It is important for athletes and practitioners to be aware of the limitations of wearable devices that automatically detect sleep duration.     

Evaluation of earth observation datasets for LST trends over India and its implication in global warming

Land surface temperature (LST) is crucial in surface energy balance, urban climatology, intensifying global change, ecological and environmental concerns. The present study examined the LST trends and spatio-temporal variation over India from 2002 to 2022. This includes comparison of LST for the summer and winter seasons over two decades. Secondly, the present study examined the LULC category wise LST variability during the day and night-time using MODIS (The Terra Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) derived products. This study explored the feasibility of cloud computing for big data analysis for LST distribution in seven landuse categories over India, providing a conceptual response to global warming. Results showed the existence of spatial LST variation due to changes in land-use patterns and MODIS derived vegetation indices- NDVI. Daytime LST for the summer and winter seasons of 2002 was found to be 45.17 °C and 39.13 °C, respectively. Outcomes illustrate declining trends in range (LST_min-LST_max) for winter seasons, initially, it was observed as 56.29 °C for 2002 while later on it was observed to be 20.21 °C and 20.87 °C for 2021 and 2022 respectively. The LST_min (summer) has shown an increasing trend towards upper LST values, from −3.01 °C to 12.21 °C from 2002 TO 2022. LST_min__winter has shown a rising trend towards the upper LST values from −17.16 °C to 9.15 °C in 2022. The maximum LST for the DRs was observed to be 61.56 °C, followed by UR as 56.24 °C. The findings demonstrate that daytime LST_min and LST_max are found to be 19.50 °C to 56.24 °C for UR, 29.5 °C to 61.56 °C for DR, 19.24 °C to 54.08 °C for SAR, −21.1 °C to 0.05 °C for SCR and 15 °C to 32.18 °C for FHR. NDVI-LST (daytime, nighttime and diurnal temperature range) feature space generates an obtuse triangle and depicts a negative correlation of vegetation for a few LULC categories. The outcomes indicated that desert and snow regions have highest LST_max followed by urban and semiarid regions during daytime. During the nighttime, desert and urban regions have the highest temperature followed by semi-arid and forest regions. The outcomes support the efficacy of earth observation datasets and help to facilitate a better understanding of LULC and its impact on regional climate.     

Breeding performance and timing of breeding of inland and coastal breeding Cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo in England and Wales

Capsule Breeding performance was higher at inland colonies than on the coast due to higher nestling survival during late development.

Aims To compare breeding performance of inland and coastal breeding Cormorants in England and Wales and to provide breeding performance data for Cormorants for future demographic studies.

Methods Breeding performance and timing of breeding was monitored at six inland and four coastal colonies during 1997 and 1998. We compare clutch and brood size and egg and nestling survival.

Results Breeding performance was higher at inland colonies because of higher nestling survival during the later stages of nestling development, from 15–56 days.

Conclusions Greater and earlier food availability at inland colonies, resulting in earlier and more protracted breeding is the most probable explanation for differences in breeding performance. A more protracted breeding season would reduce competition for food and enhance breeding performance, which may be especially apparent during late chick development when energy demands are greatest.     

Daytime naps can be used to supplement night-time sleep in athletes

ABSTRACT

This study examined the efficacy of daytime napping to supplement night-time sleep in athletes. Twelve well-trained male soccer players completed three conditions in a randomised, counterbalanced order: 9 h in bed overnight with no daytime nap (9 h + 0 h); 8 h in bed overnight with a 1-h daytime nap (8 h + 1 h); and 7 h in bed overnight with a 2-h daytime nap (7 h + 2 h). Sleep was assessed using polysomnography. The total amount of sleep obtained in the three conditions was similar, i.e. 8.1 h (9 h + 0 h), 8.2 h (8 h + 1 h), and 8.0 h (7 h + 2 h). Daytime napping may be an effective strategy to supplement athletes’ night-time sleep.     

A Prognostic Model for Development of Profound Shock among Children Presenting with Dengue Shock Syndrome

PurposeTo identify risk factors and develop a prediction model for the development of profound and recurrent shock amongst children presenting with dengue shock syndrome (DSS)MethodsWe analyzed data from a prospective cohort of children with DSS recruited at the Paediatric Intensive Care Unit of the Hospital for Tropical Disease in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The primary endpoint was “profound DSS”, defined as ≥2 recurrent shock episodes (for subjects presenting in compensated shock), or ≥1 recurrent shock episodes (for subjects presenting initially with decompensated/hypotensive shock), and/or requirement for inotropic support. Recurrent shock was evaluated as a secondary endpoint. Risk factors were pre-defined clinical and laboratory variables collected at the time of presentation with shock. Prognostic model development was based on logistic regression and compared to several alternative approaches.ResultsThe analysis population included 1207 children of whom 222 (18%) progressed to “profound DSS” and 433 (36%) had recurrent shock. Independent risk factors for both endpoints included younger age, earlier presentation, higher pulse rate, higher temperature, higher haematocrit and, for females, worse hemodynamic status at presentation. The final prognostic model for “profound DSS” showed acceptable discrimination (AUC=0.69 for internal validation) and calibration and is presented as a simple score-chart.ConclusionsSeveral risk factors for development of profound or recurrent shock among children presenting with DSS were identified. The score-chart derived from the prognostic models should improve triage and management of children presenting with DSS in dengue-endemic areas.     

Strong Discrepancies between Local Temperature Mapping and Interpolated Climatic Grids in Tropical Mountainous Agricultural Landscapes

Bridging the gap between the predictions of coarse-scale climate models and the fine-scale climatic reality of species is a key issue of climate change biology research. While it is now well known that most organisms do not experience the climatic conditions recorded at weather stations, there is little information on the discrepancies between microclimates and global interpolated temperatures used in species distribution models, and their consequences for organisms’ performance. To address this issue, we examined the fine-scale spatiotemporal heterogeneity in air, crop canopy and soil temperatures of agricultural landscapes in the Ecuadorian Andes and compared them to predictions of global interpolated climatic grids. Temperature time-series were measured in air, canopy and soil for 108 localities at three altitudes and analysed using Fourier transform. Discrepancies between local temperatures vs. global interpolated grids and their implications for pest performance were then mapped and analysed using GIS statistical toolbox. Our results showed that global interpolated predictions over-estimate by 77.5±10% and under-estimate by 82.1±12% local minimum and maximum air temperatures recorded in the studied grid. Additional modifications of local air temperatures were due to the thermal buffering of plant canopies (from −2.7°K during daytime to 1.3°K during night-time) and soils (from −4.9°K during daytime to 6.7°K during night-time) with a significant effect of crop phenology on the buffer effect. This discrepancies between interpolated and local temperatures strongly affected predictions of the performance of an ectothermic crop pest as interpolated temperatures predicted pest growth rates 2.3–4.3 times lower than those predicted by local temperatures. This study provides quantitative information on the limitation of coarse-scale climate data to capture the reality of the climatic environment experienced by living organisms. In highly heterogeneous region such as tropical mountains, caution should therefore be taken when using global models to infer local-scale biological processes.     

Environmental and genetic control of phenotypic adaptation to drought in Potentilla glandulosa Lindl.

Summary Two populations of Potentilla glandulosa (Rosaceae) have strongly contrasting abilities to seasonally modify their phenotypic sensitivity to drought by low temperature-induced changes in leaf morphology. One population is native to an inland continental climate with unpredictable droughts occurring at any time during the year. The second population is native to a coastal mediterranean climate with a highly predictable annual cycle of winter rain and summer drought. In response to low temperatures in the autumn, the inland plants produce a compact rosette of small leaves and shed their large summer leaves, thereby reducing the total plant leaf area. The inland plants begin growth in the spring in the compact rosette phenotype and are much less sensitive to drought, maintaining higher values of stomatal conductance and leaf water potential, than when in the largeleaved summer phenotype. The coastal plants do not exhibit the low temperature-induced change in leaf morphology and are relatively sensitive to drought when grown at high or low temperatures. The F₁ hybrids of a coastal x inland cross exhibit an intermediate response to low temperature and drought. In the F₂ generation the inland parental class of individuals fully responding to low temperature segregates in a 1:63 ratio.     

On the interplay effect for moving targets treated with the CyberKnife static tracking system

PurposeTo assess the interplay effect amplitude between different planned MU distributions and respiratory patterns in the CyberKnife system when treating moving targets with static tracking technique.MethodsSmall- and Large-Respiratory Motions (SRM and LRM) differing in amplitude and frequency were simulated in a semi-anthropomorphic dynamic thorax phantom. The interplay effect was evaluated for both respiration motions in terms of GTV coverage and conformity for three plans designed with an increasing range of MU per beam (small, medium and large). Each plan was delivered three times changing the initial beam-on phase to assess the inter-fraction variation. Dose distributions were measured using radiochromic films placed in the GTV axial and sagittal planes.ResultsGenerally, SRM plans gave higher GTV coverage and were less dependent on beam-on phases than LRM plans. For SRM (LRM) plans, the GTV coverage ranged from 95.2% to 99.7% (85.9% to 99.8%). Maximum GTV coverage was found for large MU plans in SRM and for small MU plans in LRM. Minimum GTV coverage was found for medium MU plans for both SRM and LRM. For SRM plans, dose conformity decreased with increasing MU range while the variation was reduced for LRM plans. Large MU plans reduced the inter-fraction variation for SRM and LRM.ConclusionsWe confirmed the interplay effect between target motion and beam irradiation time for CyberKnife static tracking. Plans with large MU per beam improved the GTV coverage for small motion amplitude and the inter-fraction dose variation for large motion amplitude.     

Observational study to characterise 24-hour COPD symptoms and their relationship with patient-reported outcomes: results from the ASSESS study

Background

Few studies have investigated the 24-hour symptom profile in patients with COPD or how symptoms during the 24-hour day are inter-related. This observational study assessed the prevalence, severity and relationship between night-time, early morning and daytime COPD symptoms and explored the relationship between 24-hour symptoms and other patient-reported outcomes.

Methods

The study enrolled patients with stable COPD in clinical practice. Baseline night-time, early morning and daytime symptoms (symptom questionnaire), severity of airflow obstruction (FEV₁), dyspnoea (modified Medical Research Council Dyspnoea Scale), health status (COPD Assessment Test), anxiety and depression levels (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale), sleep quality (COPD and Asthma Sleep Impact Scale) and physical activity level (sedentary, moderately active or active) were recorded.

Results

The full analysis set included 727 patients: 65.8% male, mean ± standard deviation age 67.2 ± 8.8 years, % predicted FEV₁ 52.8 ± 20.5%.In each part of the 24-hour day, >60% of patients reported experiencing ≥1 symptom in the week before baseline. Symptoms were more common in the early morning and daytime versus night-time (81.4%, 82.7% and 63.0%, respectively). Symptom severity was comparable for each period assessed. Overall, in the week before baseline, 56.7% of patients had symptoms throughout the whole 24-hour day (3 parts of the day); 79.9% had symptoms in ≥2 parts of the 24-hour day. Symptoms during each part of the day were inter-related, irrespective of disease severity (all p < 0.001).Early morning and daytime symptoms were associated with the severity of airflow obstruction (p < 0.05 for both). Night-time, early morning and daytime symptoms were all associated with worse dyspnoea, health status and sleep quality, and higher anxiety and depression levels (all p < 0.001 versus patients without symptoms in each corresponding period). In each part of the 24-hour day, there was also an association between symptoms and a patient’s physical activity level (p < 0.05 for each period).

Conclusions

More than half of patients experienced COPD symptoms throughout the whole 24-hour day. There was a significant relationship between night-time, early morning and daytime symptoms. In each period, symptoms were associated with worse patient-reported outcomes, suggesting that improving 24-hour symptoms should be an important consideration in the management of COPD.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12931-014-0122-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Sources and extent of human disturbance to waterbirds in the UK: an analysis of Wetland Bird Survey data, 1995/96 to 1998/99

Capsule Less than 32% of counters record disturbance at their site, with differences in causes between coastal and inland sites.

Aim Wetland Bird Survey (WeBS) data were reviewed to investigate the sources and scale of potential disturbance to waterbirds in the UK.

Methods Between 1995/96 and 1998/99, WeBS volunteer counters recorded human activity and perceived waterbird disturbance during co-ordinated counts at wetland sites across the UK.

Results Over 68% of counters recorded no disturbance at their site and only a small proportion of these (< 2%) indicated very high levels. The frequency of disturbance peaked during the late summer. Just over 26% of disturbance events were attributed to human activities. The most perceived human-related disturbance was caused by people using motor-driven machines and shooters. Coastal waterbirds were more likely to be disturbed by walkers, shooters and large aircraft whereas those inland were more likely to be disturbed by motor-driven machines and unpowered boats.

Conclusions Volunteer-based surveys can be useful in monitoring the sources and distribution of potentially disturbing activities over large spatial scales.     

Economic Evaluation of Immunisation Programme of 23-Valent Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine and the Inclusion of 13-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine in the List for Single-Dose Subsidy to the Elderly in Japan

BackgroundCurrently in Japan, both 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV–23) and 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV–13) are available for the elderly for the prevention of S. pneumoniae-related diseases. PPSV–23 was approved in 1988, while the extended use of PCV–13 was approved for adults aged 65 and older in June 2014. Despite these two vaccines being available, the recently launched national immunisation programme for the elderly only subsidised PPSV–23. The framework of the current immunisation programme lasts for five years. The elderly population eligible for the subsidised PPSV–23 shot for the 1st year are those aged 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 and ≥100. While from the 2nd year to the 5th year, those who will age 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 and 100 will receive the same subsidised shot.MethodsWe performed economic evaluations to (1) evaluate the efficiency of alternative strategies of PPSV–23 single-dose immunisation programme, and (2) investigate the efficiency of PCV–13 inclusion in the list for single-dose pneumococcal vaccine immunisation programme. Three alternative strategies were created in this study, namely: (1) current PPSV–23 strategy, (2) 65 to 80 (as “65–80 PPSV–23 strategy”), and (3) 65 and older (as “≥65 PPSV–23 strategy”). We constructed a Markov model depicting the S. pneumoniae-related disease course pathways. The transition probabilities, utility weights to estimate quality adjusted life year (QALY) and disease treatment costs were either calculated or cited from literature. Cost of per shot of vaccine was ¥8,116 (US$74; US$1 = ¥110) for PPSV–23 and ¥10,776 (US$98) for PCV–13. The model runs for 15 years with one year cycle after immunisation. Discounting was at 3%.ResultsCompared to current PPSV–23 strategy, 65–80 PPSV–23 strategy cost less but gained less, while the incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) of ≥65 PPSV–23 strategy was ¥5,025,000 (US$45,682) per QALY gained. PCV–13 inclusion into the list for single-dose subsidy has an ICER of ¥377,000 (US$3,427) per QALY gained regardless of the PCV–13 diffusion level. These ICERs were found to be cost-effective since they are lower than the suggested criterion by WHO of three times GDP (¥11,000,000 or US$113,636 per QALY gained), which is the benchmark used in judging the cost-effectiveness of an immunisation programmne.ConclusionsThe results suggest that switching current PPSV–23 strategy to ≥65 PPSV–23 strategy or including PCV–13 into the list for single-dose subsidy to the elderly in Japan has value for money.     

Geo-spatial hotspots of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and genetic characterization of Seoul variants in Beijing, China

Background

Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) is highly endemic in mainland China, and has extended from rural areas to cities recently. Beijing metropolis is a novel affected region, where the HFRS incidence seems to be diverse from place to place.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The spatial scan analysis based on geographical information system (GIS) identified three geo-spatial “hotspots” of HFRS in Beijing when the passive surveillance data from 2004 to 2006 were used. The Relative Risk (RR) of the three “hotspots” was 5.45, 3.57 and 3.30, respectively. The Phylogenetic analysis based on entire coding region sequence of S segment and partial L segment sequence of Seoul virus (SEOV) revealed that the SEOV strains circulating in Beijing could be classified into at least three lineages regardless of their host origins. Two potential recombination events that happened in lineage #1 were detected and supported by comparative phylogenetic analysis. The SEOV strains in different lineages and strains with distinct special amino acid substitutions for N protein were partially associated with different spatial clustered areas of HFRS.

Conclusion/Significance

Hotspots of HFRS were found in Beijing, a novel endemic region, where intervention should be enhanced. Our data suggested that the genetic variation and recombination of SEOV strains was related to the high risk areas of HFRS, which merited further investigation.     

Field Measurements Indicate Unexpected,Serious Underestimation of Mussel Heart Rates and Thermal Tolerance by Laboratory Studies

Attempts to predict the response of species to long-term environmental change are generally based on extrapolations from laboratory experiments that inevitably simplify the complex interacting effects that occur in the field. We recorded heart rates of two genetic lineages of the brown mussel Perna perna over a full tidal cycle in-situ at two different sites in order to evaluate the cardiac responses of the two genetic lineages present on the South African coast to temperature and the immersion/emersion cycle. “Robomussel” temperature loggers were used to monitor thermal conditions at the two sites over one year. Comparison with live animals showed that robomussels provided a good estimate of mussel body temperatures. A significant difference in estimated body temperatures was observed between the sites and the results showed that, under natural conditions, temperatures regularly approach or exceed the thermal limits of P. perna identified in the laboratory. The two P. perna lineages showed similar tidal and diel patterns of heart rate, with higher cardiac activity during daytime immersion and minimal values during daytime emersion. Comparison of the heart rates measured in the field with data previously measured in the laboratory indicates that laboratory results seriously underestimate heart rate activity, by as much as 75%, especially during immersion. Unexpectedly, field estimates of body temperatures indicated an ability to tolerate temperatures considered lethal on the basis of laboratory measurements. This suggests that the interaction of abiotic conditions in the field does not necessarily raise vulnerability to high temperatures.