Interactions of Francisella tularensis with Alveolar Type II Epithelial Cells and the Murine Respiratory Epithelium

Francisella tularensis is classified as a Tier 1 select agent by the CDC due to its low infectious dose and the possibility that the organism can be used as a bioweapon. The low dose of infection suggests that Francisella is unusually efficient at evading host defenses. Although ~50 cfu are necessary to cause human respiratory infection, the early interactions of virulent Francisella with the lung environment are not well understood. To provide additional insights into these interactions during early Francisella infection of mice, we performed TEM analysis on mouse lungs infected with F. tularensis strains Schu S4, LVS and the O-antigen mutant Schu S4 waaY::TrgTn. For all three strains, the majority of the bacteria that we could detect were observed within alveolar type II epithelial cells at 16 hours post infection. Although there were no detectable differences in the amount of bacteria within an infected cell between the three strains, there was a significant increase in the amount of cellular debris observed in the air spaces of the lungs in the Schu S4 waaY::TrgTn mutant compared to either the Schu S4 or LVS strain. We also studied the interactions of Francisella strains with human AT-II cells in vitro by characterizing the ability of these three strains to invade and replicate within these cells. Gentamicin assay and confocal microscopy both confirmed that F. tularensis Schu S4 replicated robustly within these cells while F. tularensis LVS displayed significantly lower levels of growth over 24 hours, although the strain was able to enter these cells at about the same level as Schu S4 (1 organism per cell), as determined by confocal imaging. The Schu S4 waaY::TrgTn mutant that we have previously described as attenuated for growth in macrophages and mouse virulence displayed interesting properties as well. This mutant induced significant airway inflammation (cell debris) and had an attenuated growth phenotype in the human AT-II cells. These data extend our understanding of early Francisella infection by demonstrating that Francisella enter significant numbers of AT-II cells within the lung and that the capsule and LPS of wild type Schu S4 helps prevent murine lung damage during infection. Furthermore, our data identified that human AT-II cells allow growth of Schu S4, but these same cells supported poor growth of the attenuated LVS strain in vitro. Collectively, these data further our understanding of the role of AT-II cells in Francisella infections.     

Control of Francisella tularensis Intracellular Growth by Pulmonary Epithelial Cells

The virulence of F. tularensis is often associated with its ability to grow in macrophages, although recent studies show that Francisella proliferates in multiple host cell types, including pulmonary epithelial cells. Thus far little is known about the requirements for killing of F. tularensis in the non-macrophage host cell types that support replication of this organism. Here we sought to address this question through the use of a murine lung epithelial cell line (TC-1 cells). Our data show that combinations of the cytokines IFN-γ, TNF, and IL-17A activated murine pulmonary epithelial cells to inhibit the intracellular growth of the F. tularensis Live Vaccine Strain (LVS) and the highly virulent F. tularensis Schu S4 strain. Although paired combinations of IFN-γ, TNF, and IL-17A all significantly controlled LVS growth, simultaneous treatment with all three cytokines had the greatest effect on LVS growth inhibition. In contrast, Schu S4 was more resistant to cytokine-induced growth effects, exhibiting significant growth inhibition only in response to all three cytokines. Since one of the main antimicrobial mechanisms of activated macrophages is the release of reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNI) via the activity of iNOS, we investigated the role of RNI and iNOS in Francisella growth control by pulmonary epithelial cells. NOS2 gene expression was significantly up-regulated in infected, cytokine-treated pulmonary epithelial cells in a manner that correlated with LVS and Schu S4 growth control. Treatment of LVS-infected cells with an iNOS inhibitor significantly reversed LVS killing in cytokine-treated cultures. Further, we found that mouse pulmonary epithelial cells produced iNOS during in vivo respiratory LVS infection. Overall, these data demonstrate that lung epithelial cells produce iNOS both in vitro and in vivo, and can inhibit Francisella intracellular growth via reactive nitrogen intermediates.     

Characterization of stable, constitutively expressed, chromosomal green and red fluorescent transcriptional fusions in the select agent bacterium, Francisella tularensis Schu S4 and the surrogate type B live vaccine strain (LVS)

Here, we constructed stable, constitutively expressed, chromosomal green (GFP) and red fluorescent (RFP) reporters in the genome of the surrogate strain, Francisella tularensis spp. holarctica LVS (herein LVS), and the select agent, F. tularensis Schu S4. A bioinformatic approach was used to identify constitutively expressed genes. Two promoter regions upstream of the FTT1794 and rpsF(FTT1062) genes were selected and fused with GFP and RFP reporter genes in pMP815, respectively. While the LVS strains with chromosomally integrated reporter fusions exhibited fluorescence, we were unable to deliver the same fusions into Schu S4. Neither a temperature-sensitive Francisella replicon nor a pBBR replicon in the modified pMP815 derivatives facilitated integration. However, a mini-Tn7 integration system was successful at integrating the reporter fusions into the Schu S4 genome. Finally, fluorescent F. tularensis LVS and a mutant lacking MglA were assessed for growth in monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs). As expected, when compared to wild-type bacteria, replication of an mglA mutant was significantly diminished, and the overall level of fluorescence dramatically decreased with infection time. The utility of the fluorescent Schu S4 strain was also examined within infected MDMs treated with clarithromycin and enrofloxacin. Taken together, this study describes the development of an important reagent for F. tularensis research, especially since the likelihood of engineered antibiotic resistant strains will emerge with time. Such strains will be extremely useful in high-throughput screens for novel compounds that could interfere with critical virulence processes in this important bioweapons agent and during infection of alveolar macrophages.     

Repression of Inflammasome by Francisella tularensis during Early Stages of Infection

Francisella tularensis is an important human pathogen responsible for causing tularemia. F. tularensis has long been developed as a biological weapon and is now classified as a category A agent by the Centers for Disease Control because of its possible use as a bioterror agent. F. tularensis represses inflammasome; a cytosolic multi-protein complex that activates caspase-1 to produce proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18. However, the Francisella factors and the mechanisms through which F. tularensis mediates these suppressive effects remain relatively unknown. Utilizing a mutant of F. tularensis in FTL_0325 gene, this study investigated the mechanisms of inflammasome repression by F. tularensis. We demonstrate that muted IL-1β and IL-18 responses generated in macrophages infected with F. tularensis live vaccine strain (LVS) or the virulent SchuS4 strain are due to a predominant suppressive effect on TLR2-dependent signal 1. Our results also demonstrate that FTL_0325 of F. tularensis impacts proIL-1β expression as early as 2 h post-infection and delays activation of AIM2 and NLRP3-inflammasomes in a TLR2-dependent fashion. An enhanced activation of caspase-1 and IL-1β observed in FTL_0325 mutant-infected macrophages at 24 h post-infection was independent of both AIM2 and NLRP3. Furthermore, F. tularensis LVS delayed pyroptotic cell death of the infected macrophages in an FTL_0325-dependent manner during the early stages of infection. In vivo studies in mice revealed that suppression of IL-1β by FTL_0325 early during infection facilitates the establishment of a fulminate infection by F. tularensis. Collectively, this study provides evidence that F. tularensis LVS represses inflammasome activation and that F. tularensis-encoded FTL_0325 mediates this effect.     

Survival of secondary lethal systemic Francisella LVS challenge depends largely on interferon gamma

Although survival of primary infection with the live vaccine strain (LVS) of Francisella tularensis depends on interferon gamma (IFN-γ), the relative importance of IFN-γ to secondary protective immunity in vivo has not been clearly established. Here we examine the role of IFN-γ in T cell priming and expression of vaccine-induced protection against lethal intraperitoneal challenge of mice. Large amounts of IFN-γ were detected between days 3 and 7 in the sera of LVS-immunized mice, while relatively small amounts were found transiently after secondary LVS challenge. Consistent with the production of this cytokine, mice lacking IFN-γ (gamma interferon knockout, GKO, mice) could not be successfully vaccinated with LVS or an attenuated mglA mutant of F. novicida to withstand secondary Francisella LVS challenge. Further, splenocytes from such primed mice did not adoptively transfer protection to naive GKO recipient mice in vivo, nor control the intramacrophage growth of LVS in vitro. Finally, LVS-immune WT mice depleted of IFN-γ prior to intraperitoneal challenge survived only the lowest doses of challenge. Thus successful priming of protective LVS-immune T cells, as well as complete expression of protection against Francisella during secondary challenge, depends heavily on IFN-γ.     

Porphyromonas gingivalis Mediates Inflammasome Repression in Polymicrobial Cultures through a Novel Mechanism Involving Reduced Endocytosis

The interleukin (IL)-1β-processing inflammasome has recently been identified as a target for pathogenic evasion of the inflammatory response by a number of bacteria and viruses. We postulated that the periodontal pathogen, Porphyromonas gingivalis may suppress the inflammasome as a mechanism for its low immunogenicity and pathogenic synergy with other, more highly immunogenic periodontal bacteria. Our results show that P. gingivalis lacks signaling capability for the activation of the inflammasome in mouse macrophages. Furthermore, P. gingivalis can suppress inflammasome activation by another periodontal bacterium, Fusobacterium nucleatum. This repression affects IL-1β processing, as well as other inflammasome-mediated processes, including IL-18 processing and cell death, in both human and mouse macrophages. F. nucleatum activates IL-1β processing through the Nlrp3 inflammasome; however, P. gingivalis repression is not mediated through reduced levels of inflammasome components. P. gingivalis can repress Nlrp3 inflammasome activation by Escherichia coli, and by danger-associated molecular patterns and pattern-associated molecular patterns that mediate activation through endocytosis. However, P. gingivalis does not suppress Nlrp3 inflammasome activation by ATP or nigericin. This suggests that P. gingivalis may preferentially suppress endocytic pathways toward inflammasome activation. To directly test whether P. gingivalis infection affects endocytosis, we assessed the uptake of fluorescent particles in the presence or absence of P. gingivalis. Our results show that P. gingivalis limits both the number of cells taking up beads and the number of beads taken up for bead-positive cells. These results provide a novel mechanism of pathogen-mediated inflammasome inhibition through the suppression of endocytosis.     

Role of NK cells in host defense against pulmonary type A Francisella tularensis infection

Pneumonic tularemia is a potentially fatal disease caused by the Category A bioterrorism agent Francisella tularensis. Understanding the pulmonary immune response to this bacterium is necessary for developing effective vaccines and therapeutics. In this study, characterization of immune cell populations in the lungs of mice infected with the type A strain Schu S4 revealed a significant loss in natural killer (NK) cells over time. Since this decline in NK cells correlated with morbidity and mortality, we hypothesized these cells contribute to host defense against Schu S4 infection. Depletion of NK cells prior to Schu S4 challenge significantly reduced IFN-γ and granzyme B in the lung but had no effect on bacterial burden or disease progression. Conversely, increasing NK cell numbers with the anti-apoptotic cytokine IL-15 and soluble receptor IL-15Rα had no significant impact on Schu S4 growth in vivo. A modest decrease in median time to death, however, was observed in live vaccine strain (LVS)-vaccinated mice depleted of NK1.1⁺ cells and challenged with Schu S4. Therefore, NK cells do not appear to contribute to host defense against acute respiratory infection with type A F. tularensis in vivo, but they play a minor role in protection elicited by LVS vaccination.     

Rotenone-induced Impairment of Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain Confers a Selective Priming Signal for NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

Mitochondrial dysfunction is considered crucial for NLRP3 inflammasome activation partly through its release of mitochondrial toxic products, such as mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS)² and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Although previous studies have shown that classical NLRP3-activating stimulations lead to mROS generation and mtDNA release, it remains poorly understood whether and how mitochondrial damage-derived factors may contribute to NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Here, we demonstrate that impairment of the mitochondrial electron transport chain by rotenone primes NLRP3 inflammasome activation only upon costimulation with ATP and not with nigericin or alum. Rotenone-induced priming of NLRP3 in the presence of ATP triggered the formation of specklike NLRP3 or ASC aggregates and the association of NLRP3 with ASC, resulting in NLRP3-dependent caspase-1 activation. Mechanistically, rotenone confers a priming signal for NLRP3 inflammasome activation only in the context of aberrant high-grade, but not low-grade, mROS production and mitochondrial hyperpolarization. By contrast, rotenone/ATP-mediated mtDNA release and mitochondrial depolarization are likely to be merely an indication of mitochondrial damage rather than triggering factors for NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Our results provide a molecular insight into the selective contribution made by mitochondrial dysfunction to the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway.     

Unique Substrates Secreted by the Type VI Secretion System of Francisella tularensis during Intramacrophage Infection

Gram-negative bacteria have evolved sophisticated secretion machineries specialized for the secretion of macromolecules important for their life cycles. The Type VI secretion system (T6SS) is the most widely spread bacterial secretion machinery and is encoded by large, variable gene clusters, often found to be essential for virulence. The latter is true for the atypical T6SS encoded by the Francisella pathogenicity island (FPI) of the highly pathogenic, intracellular bacterium Francisella tularensis. We here undertook a comprehensive analysis of the intramacrophage secretion of the 17 FPI proteins of the live vaccine strain, LVS, of F. tularensis. All were expressed as fusions to the TEM β-lactamase and cleavage of the fluorescent substrate CCF2-AM, a direct consequence of the delivery of the proteins into the macrophage cytosol, was followed over time. The FPI proteins IglE, IglC, VgrG, IglI, PdpE, PdpA, IglJ and IglF were all secreted, which was dependent on the core components DotU, VgrG, and IglC, as well as IglG. In contrast, the method was not directly applicable on F. novicida U112, since it showed very intense native β-lactamase secretion due to FTN_1072. Its role was proven by ectopic expression in trans in LVS. We did not observe secretion of any of the LVS substrates VgrG, IglJ, IglF or IglI, when tested in a FTN_1072 deficient strain of F. novicida, whereas IglE, IglC, PdpA and even more so PdpE were all secreted. This suggests that there may be fundamental differences in the T6S mechanism among the Francisella subspecies. The findings further corroborate the unusual nature of the T6SS of F. tularensis since almost all of the identified substrates are unique to the species.     

Generation of protection against Francisella novicida in mice depends on the pathogenicity protein PdpA,but not PdpC or PdpD

Previous results suggest that mutations in most genes in the Francisella pathogenicity island (FPI) attenuate the bacterium. Using a mouse model, here we determined the impact of mutations in pdpA, pdpC, and pdpD in Francisella novicida on in vitro replication in macrophages, and in vivo immunogenicity. In contrast to most FPI genes, deletion of pdpC (FnΔpdpC) and pdpD (FnΔpdpD) from F. novicida did not impact growth in mouse bone-marrow derived macrophages. Nonetheless, both FnΔpdpC and FnΔpdpD were highly attenuated when administered intradermally. Infected mice produced relatively normal anti-F. novicida serum antibodies. Further, splenocytes from infected mice controlled intramacrophage Francisella replication, indicating T cell priming, and mice immunized by infection with FnΔpdpC or FnΔpdpD survived secondary lethal parenteral challenge with either F. novicida or Francisella tularensis LVS. In contrast, deletion of pdpA (FnΔpdpA) ablated growth in macrophages in vitro. FnΔpdpA disseminated and replicated poorly in infected mice, accompanied by development of some anti-F. novicida serum antibodies. However, primed Th1 cells were not detected, and vaccinated mice did not survive even low dose challenge with either F. novicida or LVS. Taken together, these results suggest that successful priming of Th1 cells, and protection against lethal challenge, depends on expression of PdpA.     

Virulent Mycobacterium bovis Beijing Strain Activates the NLRP7 Inflammasome in THP-1 Macrophages

Mycobacterium bovis is the causative agent of tuberculosis in a wide range of mammals, including humans. Macrophages are the first line of host defense. They secrete proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), in response to mycobacterial infection, but the underlying mechanisms by which human macrophages are activated and release IL-1β following M. bovis infection are poorly understood. Here we show that the ‘nucleotide binding and oligomerization of domain-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain containing 7 protein’ (NLRP7) inflammasome is involved in IL-1β secretion and caspase-1 activation induced by M. bovis infection in THP-1 macrophages. NLRP7 inflammasome activation promotes the induction of pyroptosis as well as the expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 3 (CCL3) and IL-1β mRNAs. Thus, the NLRP7 inflammasome contributes to IL-1β secretion and induction of pyroptosis in response to M. bovis infection in THP-1 macrophages.     

MiR-155 Induction by F. novicida but Not the Virulent F. tularensis Results in SHIP Down-Regulation and Enhanced Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Response

The intracellular Gram-negative bacterium Francisella tularensis causes the disease tularemia and is known for its ability to subvert host immune responses. Previous work from our laboratory identified the PI3K/Akt pathway and SHIP as critical modulators of host resistance to Francisella. Here, we show that SHIP expression is strongly down-regulated in monocytes and macrophages following infection with F. tularensis novicida (F.n.). To account for this negative regulation we explored the possibility that microRNAs (miRs) that target SHIP may be induced during infection. There is one miR that is predicted to target SHIP, miR-155. We tested for induction and found that F.n. induced miR-155 both in primary monocytes/macrophages and in vivo. Using luciferase reporter assays we confirmed that miR-155 led to down-regulation of SHIP, showing that it specifically targets the SHIP 3′UTR. Further experiments showed that miR-155 and BIC, the gene that encodes miR-155, were induced as early as four hours post-infection in primary human monocytes. This expression was dependent on TLR2/MyD88 and did not require inflammasome activation. Importantly, miR-155 positively regulated pro-inflammatory cytokine release in human monocytes infected with Francisella. In sharp contrast, we found that the highly virulent type A SCHU S4 strain of Francisella tularensis (F.t.) led to a significantly lower miR-155 response than the less virulent F.n. Hence, F.n. induces miR-155 expression and leads to down-regulation of SHIP, resulting in enhanced pro-inflammatory responses. However, impaired miR-155 induction by SCHU S4 may help explain the lack of both SHIP down-regulation and pro-inflammatory response and may account for the virulence of Type A Francisella.     

Construction and Characterization of a Highly Efficient Francisella Shuttle Plasmid

Francisella tularensis is a facultative intracellular pathogen that infects a wide variety of mammals and causes tularemia in humans. It is recognized as a potential agent of bioterrorism due to its low infectious dose and multiple routes of transmission. To date, genetic manipulation in Francisella spp. has been limited due to the inefficiency of DNA transformation, the relative lack of useful selective markers, and the lack of stably replicating plasmids. Therefore, the goal of this study was to develop an enhanced shuttle plasmid that could be utilized for a variety of genetic procedures in both Francisella and Escherichia coli. A hybrid plasmid, pFNLTP1, was isolated that was transformed by electroporation at frequencies of >1 × 10⁷ CFU μg of DNA⁻¹ in F. tularensis LVS, Francisella novicida U112, and E. coli DH5α. Furthermore, this plasmid was stably maintained in F. tularensis LVS after passage in the absence of antibiotic selection in vitro and after 3 days of growth in J774A.1 macrophages. Importantly, F. tularensis LVS derivatives carrying pFNLTP1 were unaltered in their growth characteristics in laboratory medium and macrophages compared to wild-type LVS. We also constructed derivatives of pFNLTP1 containing expanded multiple cloning sites or temperature-sensitive mutations that failed to allow plasmid replication in F. tularensis LVS at the nonpermissive temperature. In addition, the utility of pFNLTP1 as a vehicle for gene expression, as well as complementation, was demonstrated. In summary, we describe construction of a Francisella shuttle plasmid that is transformed at high efficiency, is stably maintained, and does not alter the growth of Francisella in macrophages. This new tool should significantly enhance genetic manipulation and characterization of F. tularensis and other Francisella biotypes.     

Inflammasome Activation by Altered Proteostasis

The association between altered proteostasis and inflammatory disorders has been increasingly recognized, but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. In this study, we show that deficiency of either autophagy or sequestosome 1 (p62 or SQSTM) led to inflammasome hyperactivation in response to LPS and ATP in primary macrophages and in mice in vivo. Importantly, induction of protein misfolding by puromycin, thapsigargin, or geldanamycin resulted in inflammasome activation that was more pronounced in autophagy- or p62-deficient macrophages. Accumulation of misfolded proteins caused inflammasome activation by inducing generation of nonmitochondrial reactive oxygen species and lysosomal damage, leading to release of cathepsin B. Our results suggest that altered proteostasis results in inflammasome activation and thus provide mechanisms for the association of altered proteostasis with inflammatory disorders.     

Localization and Functionality of the Inflammasome in Neutrophils

Neutrophils represent the major fraction of circulating immune cells and are rapidly recruited to sites of infection and inflammation. The inflammasome is a multiprotein complex that regulates the generation of IL-1 family proteins. The precise subcellular localization and functionality of the inflammasome in human neutrophils are poorly defined. Here we demonstrate that highly purified human neutrophils express key components of the NOD-like receptor family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3), and absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasomes, particularly apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC), AIM2, and caspase-1. Subcellular fractionation and microscopic analyses further showed that inflammasome components were localized in the cytoplasm and also noncanonically in secretory vesicle and tertiary granule compartments. Whereas IL-1β and IL-18 were expressed at the mRNA level and released as protein, highly purified neutrophils neither expressed nor released IL-1α at baseline or upon stimulation. Upon inflammasome activation, highly purified neutrophils released substantially lower levels of IL-1β protein compared with partially purified neutrophils. Serine proteases and caspases were differentially involved in IL-1β release, depending on the stimulus. Spontaneous activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in neutrophils in vivo affected IL-1β, but not IL-18 release. In summary, these studies show that human neutrophils express key components of the inflammasome machinery in distinct intracellular compartments and release IL-1β and IL-18, but not IL-1α or IL-33 protein. Targeting the neutrophil inflammasome may represent a future therapeutic strategy to modulate neutrophilic inflammatory diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, or sepsis.     

CD40 Negatively Regulates ATP-TLR4-Activated Inflammasome in Microglia

During acute brain injury and/or sterile inflammation, release of danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) activates pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Microglial toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 activated by DAMPs potentiates neuroinflammation through inflammasome-induced IL-1β and pathogenic Th17 polarization which critically influences brain injury. TLR4 activation accompanies increased CD40, a cognate costimulatory molecule, involved in microglia-mediated immune responses in the brain. During brain injury, excessive release of extracellular ATP (DAMPs) is involved in promoting the damage. However, the regulatory role of CD40 in microglia during ATP-TLR4-mediated inflammasome activation has never been explored. We report that CD40, in the absence of ATP, synergizes TLR4-induced proinflammatory cytokines but not IL-1β, suggesting that the response is independent of inflammasome. The presence of ATP during TLR4 activation leads to NLRP3 inflammasome activation and caspase-1-mediated IL-1β secretion which was inhibited during CD40 activation, accompanied with inhibition of ERK1/2 and reactive oxygen species (ROS), and elevation in p38 MAPK phosphorylation. Experiments using selective inhibitors prove indispensability of ERK 1/2 and ROS for inflammasome activation. The ATP-TLR4-primed macrophages polarize the immune response toward pathogenic Th17 cells, whereas CD40 activation mediates Th1 response. Exogenous supplementation of IFN-γ (a Th1 cytokine and CD40 inducer) results in decreased IL-1β, suggesting possible feedback loop mechanism of inflammasome inhibition, whereby IFN-γ-mediated increase in CD40 expression and activation suppress neurotoxic inflammasome activation required for Th17 response. Collectively, the findings indicate that CD40 is a novel negative regulator of ATP-TLR4-mediated inflammasome activation in microglia, thus providing a checkpoint to regulate excessive inflammasome activation and Th17 response during DAMP-mediated brain injury.     

PKC/ROS-Mediated NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation Is Attenuated by Leishmania Zinc-Metalloprotease during Infection

Parasites of the Leishmania genus infect and survive within macrophages by inhibiting several microbicidal molecules, such as nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokines. In this context, various species of Leishmania have been reported to inhibit or reduce the production of IL-1β both in vitro and in vivo. However, the mechanism whereby Leishmania parasites are able to affect IL-1β production and secretion by macrophages is still not fully understood. Dependent on the stimulus at hand, the maturation of IL-1β is facilitated by different inflammasome complexes. The NLRP3 inflammasome has been shown to be of pivotal importance in the detection of danger molecules such as inorganic crystals like asbestos, silica and malarial hemozoin, (HZ) as well as infectious agents. In the present work, we investigated whether Leishmania parasites modulate NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Using PMA-differentiated THP-1 cells, we demonstrate that Leishmania infection effectively inhibits macrophage IL-1β production upon stimulation. In this context, the expression and activity of the metalloprotease GP63 - a critical virulence factor expressed by all infectious Leishmania species - is a prerequisite for a Leishmania-mediated reduction of IL-1β secretion. Accordingly, L. mexicana, purified GP63 and GP63-containing exosomes, caused the inhibition of macrophage IL-1β production. Leishmania-dependent suppression of IL-1β secretion is accompanied by an inhibition of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production that has previously been shown to be associated with NLRP3 inflammasome activation. The observed loss of ROS production was due to an impaired PKC-mediated protein phosphorylation. Furthermore, ROS-independent inflammasome activation was inhibited, possibly due to an observed GP63-dependent cleavage of inflammasome and inflammasome-related proteins. Collectively for the first time, we herein provide evidence that the protozoan parasite Leishmania, through its surface metalloprotease GP63, can significantly inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome function and IL-1β production.     

NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation by Paracoccidioides brasiliensis

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is the etiologic agent of paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM), the most prevalent systemic mycosis that is geographically confined to Latin America. The pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β that is mainly derived from the activation of the cytoplasmic multiprotein complex inflammasome is an essential host factor against opportunistic fungal infections; however, its role in infection with a primary fungal pathogen, such as P. brasiliensis, is not well understood. In this study, we found that murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells responded to P. brasiliensis yeast cells infection by releasing IL-1β in a spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk), caspase-1 and NOD-like receptor (NLR) family member NLRP3 dependent manner. In addition, P. brasiliensis-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation was dependent on potassium (K+) efflux, reactive oxygen species production, phagolysosomal acidification and cathepsin B release. Finally, using mice lacking the IL-1 receptor, we demonstrated that IL-1β signaling has an important role in killing P. brasiliensis by murine macrophages. Altogether, our results demonstrate that the NLRP3 inflammasome senses and responds to P. brasiliensis yeast cells infection and plays an important role in host defense against this fungus.     

Mycobacterium tuberculosis inhibits the NLRP3 inflammasome activation via its phosphokinase PknF

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) has evolved to evade host innate immunity by interfering with macrophage functions. Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is secreted by macrophages after the activation of the inflammasome complex and is crucial for host defense against Mtb infections. We have previously shown that Mtb is able to inhibit activation of the AIM2 inflammasome and subsequent pyroptosis. Here we show that Mtb is also able to inhibit host cell NLRP3 inflammasome activation and pyroptosis. We identified the serine/threonine kinase PknF as one protein of Mtb involved in the NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition, since the pknF deletion mutant of Mtb induces increased production of IL-1β in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). The increased production of IL-1β was dependent on NLRP3, the adaptor protein ASC and the protease caspase-1, as revealed by studies performed in gene-deficient BMDMs. Additionally, infection of BMDMs with the pknF deletion mutant resulted in increased pyroptosis, while the IL-6 production remained unchanged compared to Mtb-infected cells, suggesting that the mutant did not affect the priming step of inflammasome activation. In contrast, the activation step was affected since potassium efflux, chloride efflux and the generation of reactive oxygen species played a significant role in inflammasome activation and subsequent pyroptosis mediated by the Mtb pknF mutant strain. In conclusion, we reveal here that the serine/threonine kinase PknF of Mtb plays an important role in innate immune evasion through inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome.