胸腺细胞和细胞器水平的线粒体膜电势研究

以地塞米松(DEX)诱导小鼠胸腺细胞凋亡;利用PI和AnneXin V/PI流式细胞术分别检测细胞晚期和早期凋亡;利用JC-1和DiOC_6(3)/PI在细胞水平检测凋亡中线粒体膜电势(△ψm)变化：抽提线粒体,利用JC-1直接染色技术检测现存线粒体△ψm情况。实验结果显示,DEX显著诱导胸腺细胞早期和晚期凋亡,凋亡细胞主要来自G_0/G_1期;细胞水平可见DEX介导与△ψm相关的J-aggregate和DiOC_6(3)可染性降低,同时介导线粒体数量显著降低,6h细胞膜完整性无显著变化：单纯线粒体检测结果显示,多数线粒体维持正常△ψm。提示,DEX介导胸腺细胞凋亡中线粒体数量降低,现存线粒体多保持着正常△ψm以维持凋亡过程细胞能量供给。     

细胞器与细胞凋亡

细胞凋亡是由基因控制的有序生理过程,细胞内各组分在这一过程中相互协调,组成了精细的调控系统。除细胞核外,线粒体是近年发现与凋亡密切相关的细胞器,它经多种因子诱发可以释放细胞色素c等因子参与到凋亡途径中。进一步的研究发现,在一定条件下,内质网、溶酶体等也与凋亡活动有关。这些细胞器在细胞凋亡中的作用及其机制是目前的研究热点。     

线粒体抗病毒蛋白对先天免疫的影响

病毒感染启动宿主先天免疫反应是通过激活转录因子NF-κB和干扰素调节因子3（IRF-3）,它们协同调控Ⅰ型干扰素的表达。病毒在复制过程中产生的复制中间体双链RNA作为一个病原相关分子模式,被细胞内具有RNA解旋酶活性的维甲酸诱导基因Ⅰ（RIG-1）编码蛋白检测到。线粒体抗病毒蛋白（MAVS）作为一个接头蛋白,在RIG-1信号通路的下游和NF-κB、IRF-3信号通路的上游扮演着重要的角色。MAVS通过其疏水跨膜结构域定位在线粒体外膜上,是线粒体中发现的第一个与先天免疫相关的蛋白质,将线粒体和先天免疫联系在一起。     

线粒体凋亡途径的研究进展

线粒体凋亡途径是细胞凋亡的主要途径之一。是目前研究凋亡的热点,各种凋亡刺激信号通过BH3（Bcl-2homology domain3)-only蛋白引起Bax(Bcl-2-asslciated proteinX)蛋白移位到线粒体外膜并多聚化,形成膜通道,刺激线粒体释放细胞色素C（CytC)和Smac(second mitochondrial-derived activator of caspase),CytC通过Apaf-1因子的多聚化与胱天蛋白酶（caspases)-9形成凋亡小体,导致下游胱天蛋白酶的级联反应,而凋亡蛋白抑制因子（IAP）和Smac通过抑制和促进胱天蛋白酶的级联反应来调控细胞凋亡。     

线粒体与细胞凋亡机制

细胞凋亡是生理性的细胞死亡过程,受到多种基因的精确调节,一类被统称为ｃａｓｐａｓｅ的半胱氨酸蛋白酶是细胞凋亡程序的执行者,综们被激活后作用于细胞内的一些蛋白质,经起细胞凋亡。线粒体中含有许多凋亡相关因子,在凋亡信号转导中起着重要作用。细胞受到凋亡刺激后,细胞色素ｃ、ＡＩＦ、ｃａｓｐａｓｅ－９等凋亡相关因子从线粒体中释放出来。细胞色素ｃ通过和Ａｐａｆ－１、ｃａｓｐａｓｅ－９相互作用,激活ｃａｓｐａｓ     

线粒体在细胞凋亡中的作用

线粒体在凋亡中的作用越来越受到重视,它在细胞凋亡中起中心作用,释放凋亡活性物质,介导凋亡的酶促反应,参与凋亡调控,决定细胞是凋亡还是坏死。     

线粒体与细胞凋亡

细胞凋亡是一种由基因控制的自主性死亡过程。近年来研究发现,线拉体在细胞凋亡过程中起重要作用,它可以通过改变膜通透性、释放凋亡活性物质等介导细胞凋亡。     

细胞凋亡与线粒体细胞色素c

１细胞色素ｃ在细胞凋亡中的作用Ｋｅｒｒ于１９７２年提出了细胞凋亡（ａｐｏｐｔｏｓｉｓ）,随后发现细胞凋亡现象普遍存在于各种生物中,与细胞的生长发育,免疫调节以及许多病变如肿瘤有直接关系。与细胞坏死不同,细胞凋亡是一个相对主动的过程,伴随着一系列形态上...     

线粒体与细胞凋亡

细胞凋亡是一种重要生物学过程,在细胞生长发育以及对外界刺激的反应中有关键的作用。近年来发现线粒体跨膜电位与线粒体通透性改变在细胞凋亡过程中起重要作用。并且提出了线业体通透性改变孔道复合物的假说,引起广泛的注意,本文谨作一简单介绍。     

Mitochondria in innate immunity

Mitochondria are cellular organelles involved in host-cell metabolic processes and the control of programmed cell death. A direct link between mitochondria and innate immune signalling was first highlighted with the identification of MAVS-a crucial adaptor for RIGI-like receptor signalling-as a mitochondria-anchored protein. Recently, other innate immune molecules, such as NLRX1, TRAF6, NLRP3 and IRGM have been functionally associated with mitochondria. Furthermore, mitochondrial alarmins-such as mitochondrial DNA and formyl peptides-can be released by damaged mitochondria and trigger inflammation. Therefore, mitochondria emerge as a fundamental hub for innate immune signalling.     

干扰素刺激基因的抗病毒机制

干扰素刺激基因(Interferon-stimulated genes,ISGs)作为由干扰素(Interferons,IFNs)诱导表达的基因,在宿主抵抗病毒感染的过程中发挥着至关重要的作用。越来越多的研究表明,ISGs能够靶向病毒复制的不同阶段进而抵抗病毒感染。由于ISGs成员众多,且各自的结构及其在细胞中的定位也各不相同,这决定了ISGs在宿主体内以不同机制来发挥抗病毒作用。本文将简要介绍IFNs如何通过JAK-STAT通路调控ISGs的表达,并归纳和讨论不同ISGs家族蛋白较为典型的抗病毒机制。     

Limiting Respiratory Viral Infection by Targeting Antiviral and Immunological Functions of BST‐2/Tetherin: Knowledge and Gaps

Recent findings regarding the cellular biology and immunology of BST‐2 (also known as tetherin) indicate that its function could be exploited as a universal replication inhibitor of enveloped respiratory viruses (e.g., influenza, respiratory syncytial virus, etc.). BST‐2 inhibits viral replication by preventing virus budding from the plasma membrane and by inducing an antiviral state in cells adjacent to infection via unique inflammatory signaling mechanisms. This review presents the first comprehensive summary of what is currently known about BST‐2 anti‐viral function against respiratory viruses, how these viruses construct countermeasures to antagonize BST‐2, and how BST‐2 function might be targeted to develop therapies to treat respiratory virus infections. The authors address the current gaps in knowledge, including the need for mechanistic understanding of BST‐2 antagonism by respiratory viruses, that should be bridged to achieve that goal.

     

Mitochondria: A novel target for the chemoprevention of cancer

The mitochondria have emerged as a novel target for anticancer chemotherapy. This tenet is based on the observations that several conventional and experimental chemotherapeutic agents promote the permeabilization of mitochondrial membranes in cancerous cells to initiate the release of apoptogenic mitochondrial proteins. This ability to engage mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis directly using chemotherapy may be responsible for overcoming aberrant apoptosis regulatory mechanisms commonly encountered in cancerous cells. Interestingly, several putative cancer chemopreventive agents also possess the ability to trigger apoptosis in transformed, premalignant, or malignant cells in vitro via mitochondrial membrane permeabilization. This process may occur through the regulation of Bcl-2 family members, or by the induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition. Thus, by exploiting endogenous mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis-inducing mechanisms, certain chemopreventive agents may be able to block the progression of premalignant cells to malignant cells or the dissemination of malignant cells to distant organ sites as means of modulating carcinogenesis in vivo. This review will examine cancer chemoprevention with respect to apoptosis, carcinogenesis, and the proapoptotic activity of various chemopreventive agents observed in vitro. In doing so, I will construct a paradigm supporting the notion that the mitochondria are a novel target for the chemoprevention of cancer.     

Regulated Targeting of BAX to Mitochondria

The proapoptotic protein BAX contains a single predicted transmembrane domain at its COOH terminus. In unstimulated cells, BAX is located in the cytosol and in peripheral association with intracellular membranes including mitochondria, but inserts into mitochondrial membranes after a death signal. This failure to insert into mitochondrial membrane in the absence of a death signal correlates with repression of the transmembrane signal-anchor function of BAX by the NH₂-terminal domain. Targeting can be instated by deleting the domain or by replacing the BAX transmembrane segment with that of BCL-2. In stimulated cells, the contribution of the NH₂ terminus of BAX correlates with further exposure of this domain after membrane insertion of the protein. The peptidyl caspase inhibitor zVAD-fmk partly blocks the stimulated mitochondrial membrane insertion of BAX in vivo, which is consistent with the ability of apoptotic cell extracts to support mitochondrial targeting of BAX in vitro, dependent on activation of caspase(s). Taken together, our results suggest that regulated targeting of BAX to mitochondria in response to a death signal is mediated by discrete domains within the BAX polypeptide. The contribution of one or more caspases may reflect an initiation and/or amplification of this regulated targeting.     

Investigation of Calcium Accumulation in Mitochondria in Cells Undergoing Apoptosis

One of the earliest features of apoptosis is the induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) due to opening of a pore in the mitochondrial membrane. We estimated the Ca²⁺ capacity of mitochondria (a threshold level of Ca²⁺ that induces the release of this cation from mitochondria) during apoptosis. Incubation of thymocytes at 37°C for 4 h equally decreased the mitochondrial Ca²⁺ capacity both in the presence and the absence of dexamethasone, an inducer of apoptosis. At the same time, dexamethasone significantly stimulated internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, which is one of the manifestations of apoptosis. Cyclosporin A prevented the time-dependent decrease in the Ca²⁺ capacity of mitochondria but did not affect internucleosomal DNA fragmentation. Therefore, induction of apoptosis assessed by internucleosomal DNA fragmentation is not mediated by the mitochondrial permeability transition.     

Mitochondria and antiviral innate immunity

Mitochondria, dynamic organelles that undergo continuous cycles of fusion and fission, are the powerhouses of eukaryotic cells. Recent research indicates that mitochondria also act as platforms for antiviral immunity in vertebrates. Mitochondrial-mediated antiviral immunity depends on activation of the retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors signal transduction pathway and the participation of the mitochondrial outer membrane adaptor protein “mitochondrial antiviral signaling (MAVS)”. Here we discuss recent findings that suggest how mitochondria contribute to antiviral innate immunity.