LINGO-1-Fc蛋白对低钾诱导小脑颗粒神经元凋亡的保护作用

髓鞘抑制因子Nogo-A、MAG和OMgp通过共同的受体信号复合物NgR/p75NTR(或者TROY)发挥对中枢神经纤维再生的抑制作用.新近克隆的跨膜蛋白LINGO-1是该信号途径的另一个重要组成成分和调节分子.LINGO-1特异表达于中枢神经系统,神经元上的LINGO-1被证明参与调节中枢神经再生的抑制信号,而少突胶质细胞表达的LINGO-1分子参与负调节少突胶质细胞的髓鞘化过程.为探讨LINGO-1分子在神经元凋亡过程中的作用,利用包含LINGO-1分子胞外段LRR和IgC2结构域的Fc融合蛋白作为功能性拮抗剂,研究LINGO-1对低钾诱导的小脑颗粒神经元凋亡的保护作用.利用成熟的Hoechst标记凋亡细胞的方法,观察到经LINGO-1-Fc蛋白预处理2h能够显著阻止小脑颗粒神经元的凋亡.仅包括LRR结构域的GST-LINGO-1与LINGO-1-Fc蛋白,虽同样具有与颗粒神经元的结合活性,但是GST-LINGO-1不能有效地阻止低钾诱导的细胞凋亡.这些结果提示,LINGO-1-Fc蛋白能够阻止低钾诱导的小脑颗粒神经元凋亡,并且这种作用可能是IgC2结构域依赖的.     

过氧化氢诱发的小脑皮质凋亡神经元膜K+通道电流的变化

用新生ＳＤ大鼠小脑皮质细胞进行培养,用Ａｒａ－Ｃ抑制非神经元生长,以Ｈ２Ｏ２诱发神经元凋亡。用膜片细胞贴附式观察了凋亡神经元膜钾离子通道电流的变化,结果表明,凋亡小脑皮质神经元膜Ｋ通道在不同箍位电压下,通道电流（ＩＫ）幅度小于正常神经元的,单位电导小于正常神经元的,通道的平均开放时间,开放概率、短开放及长开放时间常数亦均小于正常神经元的。说明小脑皮质凋亡神经元Ｋ通道活动减弱     

小脑颗粒神经元谷氨酸兴奋性毒性模型的优化

在急性、慢性神经退行性疾病和炎症引发的神经系统疾病的发病机制中,兴奋性毒性可能是造成后期神经元死亡的共同途径．小脑颗粒神经元谷氨酸兴奋性毒性模型是研究上述过程的重要实验手段,该模型的稳定性和可重复性是开展相关研究的重要基础．然而,文献报道的建模方法条件各异,说法不一,很难适从．本工作针对小脑颗粒神经元谷氨酸兴奋性毒性模型建立的关键环节,包括小脑颗粒神经元的培养、兴奋性毒性刺激条件的确定,毒性标志性指标的表征,分别进行了比较和优化, 从培养皿的包被、神经元消化、兴奋性刺激的溶液介质选择、神经元刺激的最佳时间及谷氨酸的最佳刺激浓度等方面分别给出了优化条件．通过特征性钙离子曲线、NMDA受体特异性抑制剂MK-801的干预作用以及c-fos基因转录水平的动力学变化等指标,确认了毒性模型的成功建立．本工作不仅对建立小脑颗粒神经元谷氨酸兴奋性毒性模型的实验室具有重要参考意义,而且,其针对不同条件分析比较的结果及优化原则,对其他神经毒性模型的建立也具有普遍参考意义．     

热应激抑制神经元凋亡与核因子kappaB活性之间的关系

实验采用低钾诱导大鼠小脑颗粒神经元凋亡模型,观察核因子kappaB(NF-kappaB)活性与热应激抑制神经元凋亡之间的关系,迁移率改变法（EMSA）检测结果显示：神经元经低钾处理16h可见NF－kappaB活性明显升高,热应激处理可减弱低钾诱发的NF－kappaB激活,并呈时间依赖性,Hoechst33258荧光素核染色,DNA琼脂糖凝胶电泳和流式细胞（FCM）检测均发现低钾16h可诱发神经元凋亡,预先用热处理60或90min可明显减弱低钾诱发的神经元凋亡,用佛波酯（PMA）激活NF－kappaB,可进一步增强60min热应激抑制精经元凋亡的作用,而用吡咯烷二硫代氨基甲酸盐（PDTC）选择性阻断NF－kappaB活性后,热应激抑制神经元凋亡的作用明显减弱。上述结果提示,热应激的神经保护作用与减弱NF－kappaB活性无关,而NF－ksppaB激活可能参与热应激抑制神经元凋亡的作用。     

活性氧参与一氧化氮诱导的神经细胞凋亡

采用激光共聚焦成像技术，用氧化还原敏感的特异性荧光探针(DCFH-DA和DHR123)直接研究了一氧化氮供体S-亚硝基-N-乙酰基青霉胺(SNAP)诱导未成熟大鼠小脑颗粒神经元凋亡过程中的细胞胞浆、线粒体中活性氧水平的变化，发现神经细胞经0.5 mmol/L SNAP处理1 h后，细胞胞浆及线粒体中活性氧水平大大增加.一氧化氮清除剂血红蛋白能够有效抑制细胞胞浆、线粒体中活性氧的产生，防止细胞凋亡.外源性谷胱甘肽对细胞也具有良好的保护作用，而当细胞中谷胱甘肽的合成被抑制后，一氧化氮的神经毒性大大增强.实验结果表明一氧化氮通过促进神经细胞产生内源性活性氧而启动细胞凋亡程序，而谷胱甘肽可能是重要的防止一氧化氮引发神经损伤的内源性抗氧化剂.     

神经酰胺诱导小鼠皮层神经元凋亡

本实验以原代培养的小鼠大脑皮层神经元为模型,观察了天然神经酰胺在神经元凋亡中的作用。从测定ＬＤＨ漏出率、ＭＴＴ代谢率、ＤＮＡ凝胶电泳,Ｇｉｅｍｓａ染色以及电镜观察等各个方面,探讨了神经酰胺对神经元的作用模式。研究发现,神经酰胺在５００～１０００ｎＭ浓度范围内,作用１２ｈ以上,即可诱导原代培养的皮层神经元凋亡,而且此作用具有时间依赖性和剂量依赖性。表明神经酰胺不仅对ＨＬ－６０细胞有促凋亡的作用,对大脑皮层神经元同样具有促凋亡的作用。     

活性氧参与-氧化氮诱导的神经细胞凋亡

采用激光共聚焦成像技术,用氧化还原敏感的特异性荧光探针(DCFH-DA和DHR123)直接研究了一氧 化氮供体S-亚硝基-N-乙酰基青霉胺(SNAP)诱导未成熟大鼠小脑颗粒神经元凋亡过程中的细胞胞浆、线粒体 中活性氧水平的变化,发现神经细胞经0.5mmol/LSNAP处理1h后,细胞胞浆及线粒体中活性氧水平大大增 加.一氧化氮清除剂血红蛋白能够有效抑制细胞胞浆、线粒体中活性氧的产生,防止细胞凋亡.外源性谷胱甘 肽对细胞也具有良好的保护作用,而当细胞中谷胱甘肽的合成被抑制后,一氧化氮的神经毒性大大增强.实验 结果表明一氧化氮通过促进神经细胞产生内源性活性氧而启动细胞凋亡程序,而谷胱甘肽可能是重要的防止一 氧化氮引发神经损伤的内源性抗氧化剂     

白介素-6保护小脑颗粒神经元抗谷氨酸的神经毒性作用

目的：探讨白介素-6（IL-6）对谷氨酸诱导的神经元损伤的防治作用及其作用机制。方法：用IL-6慢性预处理培养的小脑颗粒神经元,然后后用谷氨酸急性刺激小脑颗粒神经元。用噻唑兰（MTT）比色法和末端脱氧核苷酸转移酶介导的原位缺口末端标记（TUNEL）法分别观察神经元的功能和凋亡的变化;用激光扫描共聚焦显微镜（LSCM）和逆转录聚合酶链式反应（RT—PCR）法分别检测神经元内Ca^2＋浓度的动态变化和IL-6信号转导蛋白gp130 mRNA的表达。结果：IL-6（2．5、5和10ng／ml）慢性预处理培养的小脑颗粒神经元,可浓度依赖性地改善谷氨酸诱导的神经元活性降低;并可明显减少谷氨酸诱导的神经元凋亡;还可显著抑制谷氨酸激发的神经元内Ca^2＋超载。此外。经IL-6慢性预处理的小脑颗粒神经元表达gp130mRNA明显低于未经IL-6预处理的神经元。结论：IL-6能保护神经元抵抗由谷氨酸诱导的兴奋毒性作用,IL-6的这种神经保护机制可能与它抑制神经元内Ca^2＋超载密切相关,而且可能由gp130细胞内信号转导途径介导。     

人体小脑神经元发育的定量观察

目的：研究人体小脑神经元的发育过程。方法：应用体视学方法,对18例不同时期人体小脑组织Golgi染色后进行观察,观测小脑皮质分层出现的时间,观测并计算神经元的数密度、体密度和表面积密度。结果：6月龄时,小脑皮质出现较明显的分子层、蒲肯野细胞层和颗粒层;星形细胞、篮状细胞、蒲肯野细胞、颗粒细胞和高尔基细胞的的数密度随月龄／年龄的增长而减少,体密度和表面积密度随月龄／年龄的增长而增加,但这些减小和增大是不等速的,6-8月龄变化最明显。结论：人体小脑神经元的发育呈现快慢交替、不均速发展,6～8月是小脑神经元发育的重要时期。     

Adenovirus-Mediated Gene Transfer of Inhibitors of Apoptosis Proteins Delays Apoptosis in Cerebellar Granule Neurons

Abstract : The inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) family of anti-apoptotic genes, originally discovered in baculovirus, exists in animals ranging from insects to humans. Here, we investigated the ability of IAPs to suppress cell death in both a neuronal model of apoptosis and excitotoxicity. Cerebellar granule neurons undergo apoptosis when switched from 25 to 5 m M potassium, and excitotoxic cell death in response to glutamate. We examined the endogenous expression of four members of the IAP family, X chromosome-linked IAP (XIAP), rat IAP1 (RIAP1), RIAP2, and neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP), by semiquantitative reverse PCR and immunoblot analysis in cultured cerebellar granule neurons. Cerebellar granule neurons express significant levels of RIAP2 mRNA and protein, but expression of RIAP1, NAIP, and XIAP was not detected. RIAP2 mRNA content and protein levels did not change when cells were switched from 25 to 5 m M potassium. To determine whether ectopic expression of IAP influenced neuronal survival after potassium withdrawal or glutamate exposure, we used recombinant adenoviral vectors to target XIAP, human IAP1 (HIAP1), HIAP2, and NAIP into cerebellar granule neurons. We demonstrate that forced expression of IAPs efficiently blocked potassium withdrawal-induced N -acetly-Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-specific caspase activity and reduced DNA fragmentation. However, neurons were only protected from apoptosis up to 24 h after potassium withdrawal, not at later time points suggesting that IAPS delay but do not block apoptosis in cerebellar granule neurons. In contrast, treatment with 100 μ M or 1 m M glutamate did not induce caspase activity and adenoviral-mediated expression of IAPs had no influence on subsequent excitotoxic cell death.     

Ethanol Induces Apoptosis in Cerebellar Granule Neurons by Inhibiting Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 Signaling

Abstract: The ability of ethanol to interfere with insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)-mediated cell survival was examined in primary cultured cerebellar granule neurons. Cells underwent apoptosis when switched from medium containing 25 m M K⁺ to one containing 5 m M K⁺. IGF-1 protected granule neurons from apoptosis in medium containing 5 m M K⁺. Ethanol inhibited IGF-1-mediated neuronal survival but did not inhibit IGF-1 receptor binding or the neurotrophic action of elevated K⁺, and failed to potentiate cell death in the presence of 5 m M K⁺. Inhibition of neuronal survival by ethanol was not reversed by increasing the concentration of IGF-1. Significant inhibition by ethanol (15–20%) was observed at 1 m M and was half-maximal at 45 m M . The inhibition of IGF-1 protection by ethanol corresponded to a marked reduction in the phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate 1, the binding of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase), and a block of IGF-1-stimulated PI 3-kinase activity. The neurotrophic response of IGF-1 was also inhibited by the PI 3-kinase inhibitor LY294002, the protein kinase C inhibitor chelerythrine chloride, and the protein kinase A inhibitor KT5720, but unaffected by the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase inhibitor PD 98059. These data demonstrate that ethanol promotes cell death in cerebellar granule neurons by inhibiting the antiapoptotic action of IGF-1.     

Activation of G Proteins Bidirectionally Affects Apoptosis of Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons

Abstract: Cultured cerebellar granule neurons maintained in depolarizing concentrations of K⁺ (25 m M ) and then switched to physiological concentrations of K⁺ (5 m M ) undergo apoptosis. We now report that activation of specific G proteins robustly and bidirectionally affects apoptosis of cultured rat cerebellar granule neurons. Stimulation of G_s with cholera toxin completely blocks apoptosis induced by nondepolarizing concentrations of K⁺, whereas stimulation of G_o/G_i with the wasp venom peptide mastoparan induces apoptosis of cerebellar granule neurons even in high (depolarizing) concentrations of K⁺. Moreover, pretreatment of cerebellar granule neurons with cholera toxin attenuates neuronal death induced by mastoparan. By contrast, pertussis toxin, cell-permeable analogues of cyclic AMP, and activators of protein kinase A do not affect apoptosis of cultured cerebellar granule neurons. These data suggest that G proteins may function as key switches for controlling the programmed death of mammalian neurons, especially in the developing CNS.     

Biochemical and Temporal Analysis of Events Associated with Apoptosis Induced by Lowering the Extracellular Potassium Concentration in Mouse Cerebellar Granule Neurons

Abstract: We analyzed biochemically and temporally the molecular events that occur in the programmed cell death of mouse cerebellar granule neurons deprived of high potassium levels. An hour after switching the neurons to a low extracellular K⁺ concentration ([K⁺]_o), a significant part of the genomic DNA was already cleaved to high-molecular-weight fragments. This phenomenon was intensified with the progression of the death process. Addition of cycloheximide to the neurons 4 h after high [K⁺]_o deprivation resulted in no cell loss and complete recovery of the damaged DNA. DNA margination and nuclear fragmentation as assessed by 4,6-diaminodiphenyl-2-phenylindole staining were observable in a few cells beginning ～4 h after the removal of high [K⁺]_o and developed to nuclear condensation 4 h later. Six hours after high [K⁺]_o deprivation, the DNA was fragmented into oligonucleosome-sized fragments. Within 6 h after removal of the extracellular K⁺, 50% of the neurons were committed to die and lost their ability to be rescued by readministration of 25 mM [K⁺]_o. Similar to high [K⁺]_o deprivation, inhibition of RNA or protein synthesis failed to halt neuronal degeneration of a similar percentage of cells 6 h after the onset of the death process. Mitochondrial function steadily decreased after [K⁺]_o removal. An ～40% decrease in RNA and protein synthesis was detected by 6 h of [K⁺]_o removal during the period of cell death commitment; rates continued to decline gradually thereafter. The temporal characteristics of the DNA damage and recovery, DNA cleavage to oligonucleosome-sized fragments, and the reduction in mitochondrial activity—events that occurred within the critical time—may indicate that these processes have an important part in the mechanism that committed the neurons to die.     

Gangliosides Attenuate Ethanol-Induced Apoptosis in Rat Cerebellar Granule Neurons

Ethanol significantly enhances cell death of differentiated rat cerebellar granule neurons on culture in a serum-free medium containing a depolarizing concentration of KCl (25 mM), 5 M MK-801 (an NMDA receptor antagonist), and 20–200 mM ethanol for 1–4 days. Cell death augmented by ethanol was concentration- and time-dependent with neurons displaying hallmark apoptotic morphology and DNA fragmentation that correlated with the activation of cytosolic caspase-3. Inclusion of 5 M MK-801 or 100 M glycine in culture media did not alter rates of cell death indicating ethanol toxicity is mediated via an NMDA receptor-independent pathway. Preincubation with 50 M gangliosides GM1, GD1a, GD1b or GT1b for 2 h, or preincubation with 10 M LIGA₂₀ (a semisynthetic GM1 with N-dichloroacetylsphingosine) for 10 min, attenuated caspase-3 activity and ethanol-induced cell death. Data show native gangliosides and a synthetic derivative are potently neuroprotective in this model of ethanol toxicity, and potentially serve as useful probes to further unravel the mechanisms relevant to neuronal apoptosis.     

R-Deprenyl and R-2-Heptyl-N-Methylpropargylamine Prevent Apoptosis in Cerebellar Granule Neurons Induced by Cytosine Arabinoside but Not Low Extracellular Potassium

Abstract: R -Deprenyl and R -2-heptyl- N -methylpropargylamine ( R -2-HMP) are compounds that have been shown to reduce neuronal death in various in vitro and in vivo models involving apoptosis but do not always prevent apoptosis. In the present study we have examined the effects of these compounds and their S enantiomers on cytosine arabinoside (ara C)-induced apoptosis and low K⁺-induced apoptosis in cerebellar granule cells in primary culture. It was found that R -deprenyl and R -2-HMP could prevent ara C-induced apoptosis with an EC₅₀ around 10⁻⁹ M but could not prevent low K⁺-induced apoptosis. S -Deprenyl and S -2-HMP did not prevent apoptosis under any conditions but were found to antagonize the antiapoptotic actions of R -deprenyl and R -2-HMP. Using the fluorescent mitochondrial dye chloromethyltetramethylrhodamine methyl ester it was found that there was a loss of mitochondrial function in cerebellar granule cells exposed to ara C but not low K⁺ medium. R -Deprenyl and R -2-HMP prevented the ara C-induced loss of mitochondrial function. It is concluded that R -deprenyl and R -2-HMP prevent apoptosis of cerebellar granule cells by a mechanism that is independent of monoamine oxidase inhibition and that they act on the same site to prevent specifically apoptosis involving a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, possibly p53-dependent apoptosis.     

Involvement of a Caspase-3-Like Cysteine Protease in 1-Methyl-4-Phenylpyridinium-Mediated Apoptosis of Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons

Abstract: Exposure of various neuronal cells or cell lines to high concentrations of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺), the active metabolite of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), results in cell death. Recently, it has been reported that low concentrations of MPP⁺ induce apoptosis in susceptible neurons. We have further characterized MPP⁺-mediated toxicity of cultured cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) and found that exposure of CGNs to relatively low concentrations of MPP⁺ results in apoptosis, whereas higher concentrations result in necrosis. Cotreatment of CGNs with MPP⁺ and the tetrapeptide inhibitor of caspase-3-like proteases, acetyl-DEVD-CHO, markedly attenuates apoptotic but not necrotic death of these neurons. The more specific inhibitor of caspase-1-like proteases, acetyl-YVAD-CHO, however, was ineffective against MPP⁺ neurotoxicity. Moreover, cytoplasmic extracts prepared from MPP⁺-treated CGNs contain markedly increased protease activity that cleaves the caspase-3 substrate acetyl-DEVD- p -nitroaniline. Finally, the cytoplasmic concentration of the apoptogenic protein cytochrome c was increased in a time-dependent fashion in MPP⁺-treated CGNs before the onset of apoptosis. Our data confirm that the neurotoxicity of MPP⁺ is due to both necrosis and apoptosis and suggest that the latter is mediated by activation of a caspase-3-like protease.