Stimulation of yeast 3-phosphoglycerate kinase gene promoter by paraquat

Yeast cells exposed to adverse conditions employ a number of defense mechanisms in order to respond effectively to the stress and sustain a high proliferation rate. It has been shown that several glycolytic enzymes are induced upon heat treatment of yeast. In this work, we used a reporter plasmid construct to study the effects of oxidative stress, induced by the O(*-)(2)-generating compound paraquat (PQ), on the yeast 3-phosphoglycerate kinase gene (PGK) promoter. Our results show that (i) moderate, as opposed to excessive, doses of PQ induce increased stimulation of the PGK promoter, at midlogarithmic phase of growth; and (ii) the thiol antioxidant N-acetylcysteine cancels this stimulatory effect. These observations may represent one aspect of a more general role for glycolysis in maintaining the energy pools of yeast cells under stress.     

Adenine nucleotides affect the binding of 3-phosphoglycerate to pig muscle 3-phosphoglycerate kinase

Pig muscle 3-phosphoglycerate kinase was complexed with 1-anilino-8-naphthalenesulfonate (ANS) in order to monitor the binding of substrates to the enzyme. The enzyme-dye interaction did not influence the enzymic activity under the experimental conditions used. By measuring the substrate-dependent change in the fluorescence emission of ANS molecules tightly bound to the enzyme (Kd less than or equal to 0.05 mM), fluorimetric titrations were carried out in 0.1 M Tris/HCl buffer pH 7.5, containing 5 mM mercaptoethanol, at 20 degrees C. The dissociation constants obtained for the separate bindings of 3-phosphoglycerate, MgATP, 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate and MgADP were 0.03 +/- 0.01 mM, 0.15 +/- 0.10 mM, 0.00005 +/- 0.00001 mM and 0.15 +/- 0.10 mM respectively. binding of 3-phosphoglycerate is weakened when MgATP is also bound to the enzyme: the dissociation constant of 3-phosphoglycerate in this ternary complex (0.25 +/- 0.08 mM) is comparable to its Km value (0.38 +/- 0.10 mM). The same weakening can be observed in the non-productive ternary complexes where MgATP is replaced by MgADP (Kd = 0.20 +/- 0.10 mM) or AMP (Kd = 0.12 +/- 0.05 mM), whereas adenosine has no such effect. This indicates the importance of the negatively charged phosphate(s) of nucleotides in influencing the binding of 3-phosphoglycerate. In contrast to 3-phosphoglycerate, the binding of the substrate analogue, glycerol 3-phosphate is practically not affected by the presence of MgATP: the dissociation constant to the free enzyme (0.40 +/- 0.10 mM) is comparable to its inhibitory constant (0.70 +/- 0.20 mM). This finding and the similarity of the dissociation constant of glycerol 3-phosphate binding (0.40 +/- 0.10 mM) and the Km value of 3-phosphoglycerate (0.38 +/- 0.10 mM) suggest that, during the enzymic reaction, binding of 3-phosphoglycerate occurs probably without involvement of the carboxyl group.     

Modelling of substrate binding to 3-phosphoglycerate kinase with analogues of 3-phosphoglycerate

Two short analogues of 3-phosphoglycerate, -OOC-CHOH-CH2-O-PO32-, phosphonolactate, (-OOC-CHOH-CH2-PO32-) and arsonolactate (-OOC-CHOH-CH2-AsO32-) have been tested with 3-phosphoglycerate kinase. None of these served as substrate for the kinase reaction, unlike the previously studied [Orr, G. A. & Knowles, J. R. (1974) Biochem. J. 141, 721-723] analogues -OOC-CHOH-CH2-CH2-PO32- and -OOC-CHOH-CH2-CH2-AsO32-, which are isosteric with 3-phosphoglycerate. Thus, a decrease in the substrate size and the accompanying stereochemical changes cannot be tolerated by the catalytic mechanism. Instead, both analogues acted as relatively poor competitive inhibitors with respect to both 3-phosphoglycerate and MgATP. AT pH 8.5 and 20 degrees C, the inhibitory constants (Ki) of phosphonolactate and arsnolactate against both substrates are 17 +/- 5 mM and 30 +/- 7 mM, respectively. Surprisingly, however, both analogues proved to be more effective than either 3-phosphoglycerate or its isosteric analogues in protecting the enzyme against modification of its fast-reacting thiols. This comparison suggests that the shorter analogues bind differently, and that the catalytic mechanism demands a precise fitting of the -CH2-O-PO32- segment of the substrate.     

Yeast 3-phosphoglycerate kinase. Essential arginyl residues at the 3-phosphoglycerate binding site.

Yeast 3-phosphoglycerate kinase (ATP:3-phospho-D-glycerate 1-phospho-transferase, EC 2.7.2.3) is inactivated by phenylglyoxal. Loss of activity correlates with the modification of two arginyl residues, both of which are protected by all of the substrates. The modification is not accompanied by any significant conformational change as determined by optical rotatory dispersion. Ultraviolet difference spectrophotometry indicates that the inactivated enzyme retains its capacity for binding the nucleotide substrates whereas the spectral perturbation characteristic of 3-phosphoglycerate binding is abolished in the modified enzyme. The data suggest that at least one of the two essential arginyl residues is located at or near the 3-phosphoglycerate binding site. A likely role of this residue could be its interaction with the negatively charged phosphate or carboxylate groups of 3-phosphoglycerate.     

Crystalline 3-phosphoglycerate kinase from skeletal muscle

1. A procedure for preparing crystalline 3-phosphoglycerate kinase from rabbit or pig skeletal muscle is presented. 2. The preparation phosphorylates up to 975mumoles of 3-phosphoglycerate/min./mg. at 30 degrees and is not contaminated with myokinase. 3. The enzyme has an estimated molecular weight of 36500+/-1000, and contains three residues each of tyrosine and tryptophan. 4. The preparation is suitable for use in the enzymic procedures for determining ATP, phosphocreatine and 3-phosphoglycerate.     

Human, yeast and hybrid 3-phosphoglycerate kinase gene expression in yeast.

When the gene for yeast 3-phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) is present on a high copy number plasmid in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 30-40 percent of yeast protein is produced as PGK. However, when the structural part of this gene is replaced by as many as twenty different heterologous genes, production of gene products is greatly reduced--usually by more than 20 fold. This decrease in protein production is accompanied by large decreases in the steady-state levels of mRNA. However, in contrast to these coding sequences, replacement of the yeast PGK structural gene with a human PGK cDNA has little effect on the steady-state mRNA level in yeast. PGK is a two-domain enzyme and its 3-dimensional structure is highly conserved among species. These observations and others have led us to propose that the PGK protein itself might influence its own mRNA levels (Chen et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 12, pp. 8951-8969, 1984). In addition, data is presented here which suggest that the human PGK mRNA is less efficiently translated than the yeast PGK mRNA. Two different mechanisms of controlling gene expression are indicated. Both mechanisms appear to be independent of gene copy number.     

Detection of the 3-phosphoglycerate kinase protein of Glomus mosseae

 The Glomus mosseae 3-phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) gene encodes a polypeptide of 416 amino acids. A synthetic peptide was designed to the C-terminus of the polypeptide for the production of a polyclonal antibody. The antibody was tested against the synthetic peptide in an immuno-dot blot and was then used to investigate the asymbiotic and symbiotic accumulation of the PGK protein. Western blot analysis revealed that a polypeptide of approximately 45 kDa accumulated in G. mosseae-colonised tomato roots; this is similar to the theoretical molecular weight of 44.764 kDa. The protein was not detected in non-mycorrhizal roots. Quantitative immuno-dot blotting revealed that the polypeptide accumulated in germinating spores and hyphae of G. mosseae and also in tomato roots colonised by G. mosseae. The amount detected in the mycorrhizal root system was significantly higher than that found in germinating sporocarps. The variation in the levels of glycolytic activity in the symbiotic and asymbiotic developmental stages of G. mosseae is discussed. Accepted: 20 April 2000     

A mutation in the 3-phosphoglycerate kinase gene allows anaerobic growth of Bacillus subtilis in the absence of ResE kinase

The Bacillus subtilis ResD-ResE two-component signal transduction system is essential for aerobic and anaerobic respiration. A spontaneous suppressor mutant that expresses ResD-controlled genes and grows anaerobically in the absence of the ResE histidine kinase was isolated. In addition, aerobic expression of ResD-controlled genes in the suppressed strain was constitutive and occurred at a much higher level than that observed in the wild-type strain. The suppressing mutation, which mapped to pgk, the gene encoding 3-phosphoglycerate kinase, failed to suppress a resD mutation, suggesting that the suppressing mutation creates a pathway for phosphorylation of the response regulator, ResD, which is independent of the cognate sensor kinase, ResE. The pgk-1 mutant exhibited very low but measurable 3-phosphoglycerate kinase activity compared to the wild-type strain. The results suggest that accumulation of a glycolytic intermediate, probably 1, 3-diphosphoglycerate, is responsible for the observed effect of the pgk-1 mutation on anaerobiosis of resE mutant cells.     

Interaction of yeast 3-phosphoglycerate kinase with negatively charged carriers

The aim of this study was to investigate the possibility of an interaction of yeast 3-phosphoglycerate kinase with negatively charged carriers such as polyanionic agents or a polarized electrode. Various polyanions were found to promote enzyme aggregation as judged by ultracentrifugation measurements and chemical modification. The data obtained suggest that these interactions are mediated through the N-terminal domain of the protein. However, the most striking property of 3-phosphoglycerate kinase described here is concerned with its significant dipolar moment as evidenced by electrocapillary measurements, which allows an orientation of the macromolecule in an electric field. Further, the enzyme could be absorbed by a negatively charged surface, first by hydrophobic links and then oriented perpendicularly to the surface. Therefore, the intrinsic properties of yeast 3-phosphoglycerate kinase agree with the formation of an enzyme-membrane complex and afford the ability for a specific orientation of the molecule at the lipid bilayer surface or in the cytoplasm.     

Reactivation of 3-phosphoglycerate kinase from its unfolded proteolytic fragments

Limited trypsinolysis of pig muscle 3-phosphoglycerate kinase yielded a nicked enzyme without loss of catalytic activity [Jiang, S. X. & Vas, M. (1988) FEBS Lett. 231, 151-154]. The reactivation rate of the nicked enzyme after denaturation does not differ substantially from the reactivation rate of the denatured intact enzyme: t 1/2 varies between 70-110 s at 25 degrees C, pH 7.0 in both cases. Thus, the absence of a covalent linkage between the two proteolytic fragments of the enzyme molecule apparently does not affect the refolding. The two proteolytic fragments can be separated by FPLC under denaturing conditions. Fluorescence spectra of the isolated fragments may indicate that the tryptic cleavage site is within the N-terminal domain. Thus, the larger fragment (molecular mass about 30 kDa) probably contains the whole nucleotide-binding C-terminal domain plus a small part of the N-terminal domain. The inactive isolated fragments were used in renaturation experiments to study the reassembly of active 3-phosphoglycerate kinase. Kinetic measurements revealed the presence of a bimolecular rate-limiting step of reactivation. Separate preincubation of the fragments under renaturing conditions did not cause substantial acceleration of reactivation. This implies that assembly of the separate structural units (possibly domains) may limit the reactivation of the intact enzyme.     

Molecular basis for the lack of enantioselectivity of human 3-phosphoglycerate kinase

Non-natural L-nucleoside analogues are increasingly used as therapeutic agents to treat cancer and viral infections. To be active, L-nucleosides need to be phosphorylated to their respective triphosphate metabolites. This stepwise phosphorylation relies on human enzymes capable of processing L-nucleoside enantiomers. We used crystallographic analysis to reveal the molecular basis for the low enantioselectivity and the broad specificity of human 3-phosphoglycerate kinase (hPGK), an enzyme responsible for the last step of phosphorylation of many nucleotide derivatives. Based on structures of hPGK in the absence of nucleotides, and bound to L and d forms of MgADP and MgCDP, we show that a non-specific hydrophobic clamp to the nucleotide base, as well as a water-filled cavity behind it, allows high flexibility in the interaction between PGK and the bases. This, combined with the dispensability of hydrogen bonds to the sugar moiety, and ionic interactions with the phosphate groups, results in the positioning of different nucleotides so to expose their diphosphate group in a position competent for catalysis. Since the third phosphorylation step is often rate limiting, our results are expected to alleviate in silico tailoring of L-type prodrugs to assure their efficient metabolic processing.     

A study of the hinge-bending mechanism of yeast 3-phosphoglycerate kinase.

The hinge-bending mechanism proposed as part of the catalytic mechanism for phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) has been investigated using yeast PGK and the site-directed mutant [H388Q]PGK, where His388 is replaced by Gln. The emission and quenching of fluorescence, supported by the aromatic CD band, show that the mutation in the waist region affects the tryptophan environment in the C-terminal domain. The mutant is also less stable to guanidine denaturation and less cooperative in its unfolding. The effect of substrates on the conformation of PGK was studied using 8-anilino-1-naphthalenesulphonic acid (ANS), a competitive inhibitor of ATP binding to the C-terminal domain, and 8-(2-[(iodoacetyl)ethyl]amino)naphthalene (I-AEDANS), attached to Cys197 on the N-terminal domain. Under the influence of substrates the novel anisotropy decay curves for ANS indicate a 1-5 degrees change in the orientation of the probe, interpreted as a small reorientation of the domains about the waist region. The experimental data are interpreted as a small swivelling of the domains about the waist region under the influence of substrate. The results with AEDANS anisotropy decay are consistent with those for ANS. The enzyme activity of PGK shows a break in the Arrhenius plot at 20 degrees C mirrored by a break in the temperature dependence of tryptophan ellipticity. This is interpreted as a change in protein dynamics associated with destabilisation of the waist region. This destabilisation is shown to have already taken place in the mutant enzyme and in the wild type at pH 5.6, both of which exhibit linear Arrhenius plots. NMR titration curves show that the pH effect must be due to a group other than histidine. The results give further support to the permissive model of hinge bending previously proposed by one of the authors, in which binding of substrate destabilises the waist region. This loosens the hinge which can then swing slightly to bring the domains closer together to make favourable interactions between the domains and the substrates, with the exclusion of water.     

Structure-function relationships in 3-phosphoglycerate kinase: role of the carboxy-terminal peptide

Yeast 3-phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) is a monomeric enzyme (Mr approximately 45,000) composed of two globular domains. Each domain corresponds approximately to the amino- and carboxy-terminal halves of the polypeptide chain. The carboxy-terminal end extends over the interdomain hinge region and packs against the amino-terminal domain. It has been proposed that domain movement, resulting in closure of the active site cleft, is essential for the catalytic function of PGK. Large-scale conformational changes have also been postulated to explain activation of the enzyme by sulfate ions. Using site-specific mutagenesis, we have removed a 15-amino-acid carboxy-terminal fragment, in order to probe its role in the substrate- and sulfate-induced conformational changes. The truncated enzyme exhibited approximately 1% of the activity of native PGK and lost the ability to undergo sulfate-induced activation. The Km for ATP was essentially unchanged (Km = 0.23 mM) in comparison to the native enzyme (Km = 0.30 mM), whereas the Km value for 3-phosphoglycerate was increased about eightfold (Km = 3.85 mM and 0.50 mM, respectively). These results suggest that the carboxy-terminal segment is important for the mechanism of the substrate- and sulfate-induced conformational transitions. CD spectra and sedimentation velocity measurements indicate that the carboxy-terminal peptide is essential for structural integrity of PGK. The increased susceptibility of the truncated enzyme to thermal inactivation implies that the carboxy-terminal peptide also contributes to the stability of PGK.     

Expression pattern of the CsPK3 auxin-responsive protein kinase gene

We have previously cloned a cDNA of a putative serine/threonine protein kinase gene named CsPK3 from cucumber, the mRNA level of which was up-regulated by auxin and down-regulated by light irradiation. To examine the CsPK3 gene expression in detail, we cloned a genomic DNA of CsPK3 gene and made transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. Petit Havana SR1) plants containing the fused CsPK3 promoter-beta-glucuronidase gene. The beta-glucuronidase expression was detected in the shoot apex, vascular tissues, and the outermost layer of cortex. The histological distribution of CsPK3 mRNA in cucumber seedlings was supported by in situ hybridization, where the positive signals were observed in similar tissues as those observed by beta-glucuronidase staining. The responsiveness of the CsPK3 gene to auxin and light was also confirmed for beta-glucuronidase activity. The pattern of beta-glucuronidase staining changed during the development of the tobacco seedlings. The results of our experiment showed that CsPK3 was expressed in a wide variety of tissues and cells in which the developmental and growth controls by auxin are suggested.