Les brisures de symetrie du temps

Introduction

Atoms theory and symmetry theory dominated physics. Symmetry propagation and interactions verify the Curie principle. But its violation by symmetry breaking is spontaneous.Fragility is creative. An information breaks a generalized symmetry. Results on symmetry breakings are not valid for fuzzy symmetries. The breaking of a fuzzy symmetry leads only to a pour symmetry (Fig.1). Homogeneity breaking, and atom of time are not usual concepts. We examine in this work symmetry breakings which generate the living time.

Relativistic Time-Space Breaking

1. Medium and environment of living define ordinary referential of space and referential of time. Astronomical phenomena following classical mechanics and microphysical phenomena following quantum mechanics can be written with the same t coordinate.
2. Relativity corrections. Schrödinger's Quantum mechanics (Eq.0) approximately governs molecular systems (Relativity corrections can be expressed as physical effects in the above defined referential).
3. Time reversal symmetry. The well-known Wigner's transformation determines the microscopic reversibility.
4. The three essential particle-vacancy equilibria. This transformation is verified by all particle-vacancy reciprocity. Vacancy moves like particle but with negative moment and positive kinetic energies. Only three biochemical equilibria admit this time reversal symmetry, namely: oxydo-reduction, acido-basicity, fluidity-viscosity. In these case, reacting electron, solvated proton, water molecule are respectively antagonist of the corresponding vacancy.
5. Fuzzy character of time reversal symmetry. Dirac's equation does not admit this symmetry which only appears at the “non relativistic” limit of quantum phenomena. Hence particle-vacancy reciprocity is fuzzy according to the experimental evidence. (Laforgue et al., 1988).

Oriented Time

1. From the universal reversible time, an additional breaking generates the oriented time, both in the astronomical and in the living matter.
2. Irreversibility for the environment. We refer to Prigogine and Stengers (1988).
3. Irreversibility for the living matter. We refer to Lochak (1986). Because equation (0), above discussed, is “microreversible” the second breaking could come from an additional term vanishing in the stationary states but increasing with time in evolutionary processes.
4. Negative times. Taking into account the fuzzy character of the time reversed symmetry, the third breaking cannot suppress completely the occurrence of negative times. Reversed time is controlled by direct time. Except in the three above reported cases, time reversal symmetry is not verified by the medium. Free motion of the particle following eg.(0) or of the vacancy following time reversal reciprocal equation takes place only during short jumps from an interaction site to an other. Fig. 2 schematizes the law of motion of the electric charge corresponding to the transport by proton or by proton vacancy in an unitary field (fluctuations are neglected). The reserved jumps are estimated in the range of 10^?12s. It is not excluded that such a jump can control a direct phenomenon.
5. The living time. Biological phenomenon appears as an oriented set of events. Nevertheless latency or exaltation phases could be perceived. This modulation could be described by positive and negative times additional to the basic time. (Negative can be interpreted as above)

Living produces Time

1. That were not understandable, if time was only a frame, in which change occurs. Taking chance as frame and time as effect, we regard biological activity as integrating reversible and irreversible time. Living synchronizes internal and external time by its own effort as it results (Lestienne, 1990) from Chronobiology.
2. Time modulation. Let us consider the dy₁...dy_i...dy_p changes in the variables of the systems, dy={dy_i} has produced dt. We proof (eq.(1) to (4)) that time is modulated by a φ_(y) speed coefficient depending on the medium. t_modulated=tφ _(y) ^?1
3. The production of reversible time (e.g.acido-basicity) determines time modulation. As above reported it remains some reversibility effects (jumps of negative time) which modulate time. E.G., if an important amount of reagent is necessary to modify an acid-base equilibrium, φ_(y) is small.
4. Time modulation and activation-repression reciprocity. As well-known, long t_modulated means repression, short t_modulated means exaltation. Extrema of ? are symmetrical because particle and vacancy are reciprocal. Nevertheless reciprocity is not perfect. E.g., on fig. 3, the wet receptor determines the cell increasing, the dry receptor the cell senescence of a certain alga (Lück, 1962).
5. Irreversible time production. Medium accepts entropy. Hence it acts in the second breaking of time. Living extracts the free energy from the medium, like a dissipative structure. That insures an operative point far from the thermodynamical equilibrium.

Consumption of Time

1. The three followings correspond to the more trivial time consumption.
2. Rhythmical time. Free energy flux is favourable to the arising of order in space or time. This later gives a structure to the living time.
3. Mutual dependence of reversible time and rhythms. Time irreversible structure can be controlled by the above considered particle-vacancy equilibrium. Consequently the living time (modulated and structured) is a chemical time connected to molecular properties and to statistical thermodynamics. Practically, the connection between chronobiology and chemistry is important. The use of drugs could be interpreted as a response to an aggression against biorhythms.
4. Lifetime. The dead-birth rythm can be broken in two ways: evolution or indefinite life. This later is non exceptional for the living matter, e.g. in the vegetals where it is connected with the chlorophyllic assimilation; the time reversal significance of which is evident.
5. The plan of the alchemist. Indefinitely life has fascinated individuals. Do the human species becomes better adapted by a longer life?

Conclusions

1. Atoms of time could exist.
2. Biological time is defined by the breaking of five generalized symmetries, namely: Minkovski's space symmetry, reversibility, homogeneity, rhythmicity, generations reproduction.
3. Environment and medium determine non relativistic, oriented, structured time.
4. At the microphysical scale, a fuzzy time reversal symmetry takes place, the breaking of which is not complete. Reversible time and dominating irreversible time are integrated in living phenomena.
5. Three fundamental particle-vacancy reciprocities admit a part of reversibity. Irreversibility governs the all others phenomena.
6. Time is produced chemically.
7. A new perspective is the connection between chemical equilibria and rhythms including the time of the life.

     

Les flavonoides de deux especes du genre Chrysosplenium

Five flavonols have been isolated from two species of Chrysosplenium; C. alternifolium contains penduletin 3,7-di-O-methylquercetagetin, 3,6,7-tri-O-methylquercetagetin and 3,3′,6,7-tetra-O-methylquercetagetin; C. oppositifolium possesses the last two compounds and 3,3′,7 tri-O-methylquercetagetin. These flavonols have been identified by chromatographic and spectral data; the taxonomic implication of this flavonoid pattern has been considered.     

Brisures de symetrie hierarchisant les niveaux d'organisation

1. The sequence of the organisation levels is regarded as originating from a sequence of symmetry breakings. Each breaking generates a more improbable structure. In addition to the Euclidian symmetries, homogeneity, isotropy, translation, rotation, helix displacement, neutrality and even indiscernibility can be broken. Here are considered the initial (§ 2) and the subatomic breaking molecular morphogenesis (§ 3, 4) and other higher breakings.2.1 HOMOGENEITY BREAKING OF THE VACUUM SPACE. We studied this as a new model of wave-corpuscle relation. Every noticeable point breaks the space homogeneity. Directed by a momentum this breaking operates as a fissure.2. Postulate of the corpuscle. The quantum mechanical corpuscle is the end of a fissure, the momentum of which characterises direction and velocity.2.2. Postulate of the wave. The associate wave comes from the end of the fissure and works to split the medium.2.3. Corollary to the trajectory. The fissure prefers continuity and a straight line. Nevertheless the fissure can stop at a point and then start from an other point. This discontinuity and any momentum possible discontinuity are limited only by uncertainty relationships; frequency of discontinuity is limited by the first one. Vacuum has no memory of the fissures. 2.4.Corollary to the localisation. The fissure diminishes the medium constraints and allows the medium to vibrate in a domain surrounding the end of the fissure.2.5. Physical analogies.

- Photo-elastic studies of the fissuration of solids (Corten & Park, 1963) show a little sphere and a wavelike perturbation at the end of the fissure.

- A fragile and resonating object can be broken by a sound wave. This crack emits a sound wave. Here we consider one associated wave, emitted and absorbed.

- Broken panes picture an emission of rays.

li]2.6. Consequences of the fissure model (without modifying the laws of quantum mechanics).

1. The corpuscle generates a fractal trajectory. From literature (Abott & Wise, 1981; Nelson, 1966) or from the present model we can calculate a fractal dimension, namely 2. But this numerical value corresponds to the simplest assumptions. Inhomogeneity or rapid changes in time could increase this value. The actual fractal dimension is a physical property which was neglected until now. It can govern the probability of collision between corpuscles, hence the probability of nuclear fusion between corpuscles, like deuton, the enhancement of which at low energies was recently discovered (Fleischman & Pons 1989).
2. The difficulties linked with the extrapolation from macroscopic structure vanish. No wave is indefinitely extended. Corpuscle can disappear and reappear again (e.g. it can pass through a nodal surface). The indiscernibility is included in the model.

li]3. ATOM HYBRIDIZATION. The calculated value of the entropy (Chantelot & Laforgue, 1966) demonstrates that the hybridization is a physical phenomenon. It corresponds to the breaking of the spherical symmetry into a polyhedral symmetry. Hybridized orbitals can be a priori determined by equiprobability of the different angular momenta for the atom (which cannot be measured into a molecule). The independently determined eigenfunction enables one to find the same symmetry. li]3.1. Image of the molecule on the basis of a constituent atom. The “natural orbitals” of the molecular wave function of such a basis describe pertinently the atom symmetry breaking and the supplementary deformation by the molecular surrounding. li]3.2. The criterion of the so-called “maximum ponderated overlapping” leads to the “image orbitals”. Hence we obtain a generalization of the well known criterion of Pauling. li]3.3. Physical sense of the “image orbitals”. They describe the molecule from the point of view of the atom. They are adapted to the bonding of the atom with its molecular surrounding. li]4. THE CHIRAL BREAKNG. Referring to previous publications (Laforgue, 1983, 1988, 1989a, b, c, d, 1990) asymmetrical molecules oscillate or break depending on the height of inversion and destruction barriers. Fig. 1 pictures the domains of stability. Fig. 2 pictures the so-called “Path of Easiest Destruction and Inversion”. li]4.1. Equations of the chiral breaking. The more general case is the endothermic one (Fig. 3). Some equations are proposed. The so-called destruction time {Eq A} and inversion time {Eq B} determine by {Eq Z} process the final symmetry {Eq C} or final chirality {Eq D}. A more accurate treatment is the application of the Bohr-Heisenberg principle. If the inversion barrier is higher than the destructive one, the classical solution is confined to the right or to the left; hence the quantum behaviour is a random tunnelling and not a periodical oscillation (at low quantum numbers the amount of inversion is negligible). The results are experimentally verified because no evolution in chiral structure other than random inversion was ever observed. li]4.2. Chiral molecule is a pseudo-stationary state. Two enantiomers are distinct molecules. They do not have the symmetry of the Hamiltonian because they are not a solution of the Schrödinger's amplitude equation. li]4.3. Chiral constraint. The complete error potential is formulated. It follows an electronic oscillation and intra-molecular forces on the nuclei. In an oscillating molecule these forces affect the oscillation. The forces become permanent by chiral breaking, which explains asymmetrical properties. li]4.4. Chiral medium. A molecule submitted to asymmetrical forces has asymmetrical properties. Some of these effects have not yet been formulated but should be postulated (e.g. induced electronic circular dichroïsm). Quantum measurement theory shows that the effective inversion time increases when chiral interactions become more frequent. li]4.5. Biological role of chirality. Racemic life cannot work, hence there is optical symmetry breaking of the biosphere. It demands an initial preference and global autocatalysis, which can take the form of molecular recognition followed by defense mechanisms. The set of chiral molecules can be characterised as an intermediate level between matter and life. li]5. BREAKING OF THE CHIRAL LEVEL AND OF THE HIGHER ONES.

- The chain of identical chiral monomers can be submitted to an helix displacement breaking (i.e. non identical monomers) leading to a memory organisation level.

- If the electronic fluctuation through chemical bounding is broken, two systems of electrons become mutually discernable. That occurs on the organisation level of the super molecule.

- Following breakings generate spacial forms and acting mechanisms, as well known.

li]6. CONCLUSION. The reviewed breakings can be interpreted in terms of living requirements. There common cause is symmetry fragility. Matter and life derive from the vacuum space by successive spontaneous symmetry breakings. Finally, the question of an upper limit of organisation arises.     

Les industries paléolithiques du bassin de Bose (Chine du Sud)

About eighty Paleolithic sites are presently known in Bose basin (West of Guangxi autonomous region, South China). The sites are extensively spread on the fourth terrace of the Youjiang River. They are dated to 0.8 my, thanks to the presence in the archaeological layers of tektites, residues from a major meteoritic event, in association with the archeological materials. Only about twenty sites have been actually excavated and handaxes have been very recently discovered in stratigraphic context. The archeological material exclusively includes lithic industry which is mainly constituted by unifacial pebble tools made on coarse grain rocks: choppers, but also handaxes and picks. The technology used is very simple and there are no spheroids which usually characterize a lot of Chinese sites of this period. Bose handaxes, thought their number is quite low, remind of the western Acheulian.     

Les Spatangus du Miocène et du Pliocène de l’Ouest de la France

Numerous fragments of spatangoid echinoids have been discovered in the Pliocene deposits of Challans, in Vendée (western France). In spite of the fragmentary data of the samples, a reconstitution of a complete test could be realized using the different fragments and their symetrization. The general shape of the test, and its architectural and ornemental characters allow establishing the presence of the genus Spatangus in western France during the end of Neogene. It allows to precise the biogeography of the genus Spatangus and of the morphological group S. (S.) purpureus on the Atlantic coast after the Messinian crisis. The Pliocene species is compared to the Miocene Spatangus (Phymapatagus) brittanus, abundant in Anjou, Brittany and Touraine. This older species was refered to the subgenus Phymapatagus according to the presumed lack of primary tubercles on its posterior interambulacrum. The discovery of well-preserved specimens, with primary tubercles on every parts of the test, in the Middle Miocene of Brittany allows to refute this subgeneric distinction and to refer the species brittanus to the subgenus Spatangus (Spatangus). The presence of this subgenus in western France is finally confirmed from Middle Miocene to Pliocene.     

Les assemblages de diatomées du bassin messinien de Boudinar (Maroc nord-oriental)

The Messinian is one of the strongest biogenic silica accumulation periods in the world and more particularly in the Mediterranean, where it is marked by an important diatomitic sedimentation. In the Boudinar basin (Morocco north-Eastern, Western Mediterranean), the section of Sidi Haj Youssef, localised near the volcano of Ras Tarf, has approximately 100 m thickness of clayey-marly series in which 12 diatomitic levels of variable thickness are intercalated. The microfloristic study of diatoms on 86 samples, carried out in detail for the first time, made it possible to recognize 50 genus of diatoms (24 of centric and 26 of pennate) represented by 185 species (75 species of centric and 110 species of pennate). Four hundred individuals were taken from each sample to determine the relative frequency of each taxon within the diatoms assemblages. Thus, several assemblages were defined by the predominance of the following species: Coscinodiscusmarginatus, Actinoptychussenarius, Thalassionemanitzschioides, Actinocycluscurvatulus, Thalassiothrixlongissima, Rhizosoleniastyliformis and Actinocyclusehrenbergii. These diatoms assemblages display a littoral marine environment in communication with the opened sea. The abundance of the cold water species towards the base and the top of the section suggests broad exchanges of the basin with the Atlantic Ocean in Messinian. The predominance of the species Thalassionemanitzschioides and/or Thalassiothrixlongissima indicates periods of strong productivity that can be associated to upwelling systems.     

Les limites du SUV

The standardized uptake value (SUV) is the most used index to characterize the Fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) uptake in Positron Emission Tomography (PET). To better understand the potential of this index and its limitations, this article starts from the SUV definition, explains the different steps used to calculate the SUV, and shows the relationship between the SUV and the glucose metabolic rate. This analysis demonstrates the approximations and the sources of errors explaining why the SUV does not accurately represent the glucose metabolic rate. We also discuss why, despite the limitations of the SUV, it is useful in clinical routine and is currently the reference index used to roughly characterize the glucose metabolic rate. Finally, some ideas are presented that could facilitate the accurate characterization of the glucose metabolic rate from FDG PET scans in the future.