Altitudinal distribution patterns of Mexican cloud forests based upon preferential characteristic genera

Mexican cloud forest vegetation has been recorded in temperate humidconditions at rather different elevations ranging from 600 to 3000m. They are characterised by high biodiversity under continuousfoggy situations. Some authors state that many genera are quantitativelyimportant to depict cloud forest conditions. Detailed quantitative studiescomprising most of the localities of Mexican cloud forests to depict altidudinaldistribution ranges on basis of preferential genera have not been previouslyconducted. The aim of this study is (1) to recognise characteristic preferentialgenera of Mexican cloud forest conditions, and (2) to determine quantitativelythe current altitudinal distribution pattern of this vegetation type. From adatabase composed by 995 genera inhabiting in the Mexican cloud forests, sixgenera were chosen preliminary as preferential characteristics. These wereClethra, Magnolia, Meliosma, Styrax, Symplocos, andTernstroemia. These genera include 70 species that occur atover 70% of the current Mexican cloud forest fragments. The mean elevation ofthese genera records were 1853 m (±600 at 95% confidenceinterval). The results showed that Mexican cloud forests occur optimally between1250 and 2450 m. Additionally, Mexican cloud forest is the bestdistributed within some provinces of the Región Mesoamericana deMontaña, chiefly at Serranías Meridionales,Sierra Madre Oriental, and SerraníasTransístmicas. The results are discussed in light of theimportance of these regions as diversification centres.     

Geographic distribution patterns and status assessment of threatened plants in China

Large scale heterogeneous distribution of biodiversity has become a hot topic for ecologists and conservationists. A threat status assessment combined with geographic distribution patterns of threatened plants in China has been conducted at a national scale in this study based upon a distribution database that refers to both specimen records and published references. Currently, 302 threatened plant species are cataloged in the “National Protected Key Wild Plants” in China belonging to 92 families and 194 genera. Results of the assessment according to the Categories and Criteria system of The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List indicate that three species have been assessed as Extinct in Wild (EW) while a further 79, 99 and 112 species have been assessed as Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), and Vulnerable (VU), respectively. Distribution patterns of threatened plants were analyzed with GIS to identify areas of high species diversity. It was found that threatened plant species occur unevenly within counties and are concentrated in the following eight hotspots: the central and southern Hengduanshan mountain area; the southeast regions of Yunnan as well as Xishuangbanna and southwestern Guangxi; the southern Hainan island; the border mountainous regions of Guizhou, Hunan and Guangxi provinces; the mountainous regions of southwestern Hubei and northern Hunan; southwestern Zhejiang and western Fujian; central Sichuan and southern Gansu; and the western mountains of Guangdong. Moreover, the 12 counties with the greatest number of threatened plant species represent cumulatively more than 50% of the total listed species and, therefore, are the regions in China that should be prioritized for conservation efforts. By overlapping the map of threatened plant species with the distribution of national nature reserves, a gap was identified in protected areas. This research will ultimately provide insights for prioritizing biodiversity conservation as well as processing the mechanisms of distribution patterns.     

Distribution patterns of threatened endemic plants in Turkey: A quantitative approach for conservation

Documenting the basic patterns of biodiversity and accurately determining the priority areas are the first steps for conservation studies. Threatened species and IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red Lists are among the widely used tools to identify protected areas. Turkey is one of the most important biodiversity centres in the world. The plant diversity of Turkey with over 30% endemic species of approximately 12000 natural vascular plant taxa is well documented through use of a Grid System. However, Turkey has suffered heavy anthropogenic effects having been a settlement for many civilisations throughout the history of humankind. Therefore, Turkey needs a quantitative evaluation of the importance of different grid squares for conserving plant diversity. This paper offers a quantitative approach for aiding the identification of priority areas for biodiversity conservation by analysing the threatened plants in each grid square in terms of endemism, risk categories and distribution characteristics. The grid squares (nearly 220 x 170 km²) were then classified within four different groups in terms of their conservation importance. This national-level information can be used for further research and decision-making processes for conservation planning.     

Species richness,endemism and conservation of Mexican gymnosperms

An analysis of the distribution patterns of 124 Mexican gymnosperm species was undertaken, in order to detect the Mexican areas with high species richness and endemism, and with this information to propose areas for conservation. Our study includes an analysis of species richness, endemism and distributional patterns of Mexican species of gymnosperms based on three different area units (states, biogeographic provinces and grid-cells of 1° × 1° latitude/longitude). The richest areas in species and endemism do not coincide; in this way, the Sierra Madre Oriental province, the state of Veracruz and a grid-cell located in the state of Oaxaca were the areas with the highest number of species, whereas the Golfo de México province, the state of Chiapas and a grid-cell located in this state were the richest areas in endemic species. A weighted endemism and corrected weighted endemism indices were calculated, and those grid-cells with high values in both indices and with high species richness were considered as hotspots; these grid-cells are mainly located in Southern and Central Mexico.     

A new method for calculating Risk Tolerance in the assessment of threatened flora

This paper reports on a proposed method for evaluating threat categories for regional flora, based mainly on phytogeographical data. The method involves the creation of current distribution maps, analysis of threat factors and use of the RAMAS Red List software to facilitate rapid and objective classification of taxa in accordance with 2001 IUCN criteria. In order to ensure a more objective approach by the assessor and reduce the range of uncertainty, an index was created for calculating Risk Tolerance (RT) that enabled adjustment of the results obtained and thus supplemented the software used. For trial purposes, the proposed model was applied to Spanish gypsophilous flora currently protected under Spanish regional legislation. When classified using the new model, the taxa in question were placed in very different categories, ranging from least concern (LC) to endangered (EN), indicating the need to redefine both their current legal status and recommended management measures. Use of this method will enable scientists to optimise available information on the geographical distribution of endangered taxa, and help governments both to optimise their financial investment in conservation and to define their priorities. The authors endorse the use of IUCN categories in legal protection texts, and advocate as essential a greater degree of coordination between scientists and governments.     

Distribution, habitat characteristics and conservation requirements of a forest-dependent threatened invertebrate Lissotes latidens (Coleoptera: Lucanidae)

The distribution, habitat and conservation requirements of an endangered stag beetle, Lissotes latidens (Coleoptera: Lucanidae), in south-east Tasmania were investigated. This study trebled the known range of the species to 280 km², of which 15% constituted potential habitat. The beetle was found to inhabit a range of wet forest types including damp eucalypt forest, wet eucalypt forest, rainforest and riparian areas amongst drier forest types. Relative to other Tasmanian lucanids, L. latidens was found to occur at quite low population densities. The species had a preference for forest with a well-developed overstorey and greater than 10% ground cover of coarse woody debris (CWD). Although L. latidens is soil-dwelling throughout its life-cycle, it has a close association with CWD, occurring under logs at the interface of soil and CWD. Suitable forest habitat for L. latidens is poorly reserved, with 48% managed under clearfell, burn and sow forestry regimes; a practice that is likely to lead to the depletion of CWD over successive harvesting rotations. Recommendations are made for the conservation management of habitat utilised by L. latidens in off-reserve areas. The need for conservation strategies to incorporate the temporal dynamics of habitat important to forest-dependent threatened species is discussed.     

Using phylogenetic, genetic and demographic evidence for setting conservation priorities for Mexican rare pines

Phylogenetic, genetic and demographic information are key issues for establishing priorities for conservation. In this study we explored the Vane-Wrigth measure of phylogenetic diversity for establishing criteria for conservation, when intra as well as interpopulation level demographic (population size) and genetic (heterozygosity, inbreeding and genetic distances among populations) parameters are taken into consideration. The data were standardized and analyzed independently and integratively enabling the calculation of indices or criteria for conservation priorities. We illustrate the application of this approach in populations of four Mexican pine species that have been considered rare and endangered, Pinus rzedowzkii, P. pinceana, P. lagunae and P. muricata. The application of several independent diversity indices did not allow us to resolve prioritization. However, the integration of all indices generated different values of importance to conservation, and suggested that the populations with the highest priorities for conservation are: two for Pinus rzedowskii, P. pinceana, and P. lagunae, and one for P. muricata. These populations have intermediate sizes, are the most divergent in the phylogeny and contain genetic variation that is representative of the gene pool of each species. Finally, we demonstrated the functionality of some genetic and demographic parameters; the genetic structure, recruitment rate, geographic distribution and demographic stochasticity, as complementary indicators for evaluating the conservation priority among populations and species.     

Analysis of threatened endemic trees of the Western Ghats of India sheds new light on the Red Data Book of Indian Plants

The Red Data Book of Indian Plants (RDB) is a reference manual that lists threatened angiosperms, gymnosperms and pterydophytes. Because it is widely used as an analytical tool and is a major reference for impact assessments on vegetation, it is important that the RDB be as comprehensive and up to date as possible. This study is an attempt to cross-check the listings in the RDB using vegetation inventories and another reference manual, the Atlas of Endemics of the Western Ghats, India []. Field inventories across the Western Ghats gave an estimate of the species relative abundances and the Atlas provided quantitative information on the number of records for the endemic species in herbaria, literature, and during field surveys. The results of this analysis indicate that the RDB and the Atlas agree statistically regarding the conservation status of endemic trees. However, the proportion of threatened species per Atlas record category behaves erratically, indicating that some threatened endemic trees are not listed in the RDB. Our results suggest that the status of threatened plant species should be reexamined on a priority basis using quantitative methodology. An updating of the RDB is urgently needed, particularly for the endemic plants of the Western Ghats. We provide a list of species that are likely to be threatened, yet are not listed.     

A conservation appraisal of the rare and endemic vascular plants of Pitcairn Island

The flora of the Pitcairn Islands consists of 81 species, of which 10 are endemic. IUCN Red List threat categories show that over 60% of the indigenous flora is threatened within the island, and over 20% is threatened globally. To provide a more objective regional assessment that could prioritise conservation management, a system of threat scores was applied to each taxon based on potential threat due to habitat damage or exploitation. The main threats affecting the flora and vegetation are posed by habitat clearance, spread of invasive species, small population sizes or restricted distributions, erosion, lack of a frugivorous bird and exploitation. Addressing these threats by means of a system of nature reserves, species-specific recovery plans and control of invasive species, erosion and exploitation, will start to combat these problems. However, any conservation activities must be implemented in conjunction with the interests of the local community, and in consultation with them, in order to ensure success.     

Fern richness,tree species surrogacy,and fragment complementarity in a Mexican tropical montane cloud forest

We related pteridophytes versus tree species composition to identify surrogate measures of diversity, and complementarity of seven cloud forest fragments. Forest structure, and fern and tree composition were determined in 70 (2 × 50 m) transects. Fern density (10,150–25,080 individuals/ha) differed among sites. We recorded 83 fern species in the transects. Nonparametric richness estimators indicated that more sampling effort was needed to complete fern inventories (14 more species). However, ferns recorded outside of the transects increased richness to 103 species (six more species than predicted). Twenty-eight species were unique and rare due to special habitat requirements (Diplazium expansum, Hymenophyllum hirsutum, Melpomene leptostoma, Terpsichore asplenifolia), or were at a geographical distribution edge (Diplazium plantaginifolium, Lycopodium thyoides, Pecluma consimilis, Polypodium puberulum). Correlations between fern richness and tree richness and density were not significant, but were significant between fern richness and fern density, between epiphytic fern density and tree richness and density. Tree richness is not a good surrogate for fern diversity. Only three species were recorded in all fragments (Polypodium lepidotrichum, P. longepinnulatum, P. plebeium); thus fragments pteridophytes compositions are highly complementary, but more similar for ferns than for trees. A regional conservation approach which includes many small reserves needs to focus supplementarity on patterns of tree and fern species richness.     

Achieving Target 2 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: building a preliminary assessment of vascular plant species using data from herbarium specimens

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation calls for a preliminary assessment of the conservation status of all known plant species by the year 2010. To date insufficient progress has been made on meeting this target. New efforts to develop a preliminary list beyond using the full IUCN criteria in plant assessments are needed. Here we present an algorithm that provides a preliminary assessment of the conservation status of plant species using data from herbarium specimens. We use Hawaiian specimen data from the United States National Herbarium to calibrate the parameters of the algorithm and then use specimen data from the Arecaceae, Commelinaceae, Gesneriaceae and Heliconiaceae as examples of the application of the algorithm. The algorithm was calibrated to insure 95% accuracy in placing the Hawaiian plant species into previously and independently determined threatened categories. Our results indicate that 28% of the Hawaiian taxa, 27% of the species of Arecaceae, 45% of the species of Commelinaceae, 32% of the species of Gesneriaceae, and 35% of the species of Heliconiaceae are Not Threatened and will not need any further evaluation for the preliminary assessment. Species identified here as Potentially Extinct and Potentially Threatened can be further assessed by additional herbarium material and/or conservation specialists for final evaluation using other assessment strategies (e.g., regional and national lists, taxonomic expert assessment, etc.).     

Red-listed lichens in Sweden: habitats, threats, protection, and indicator value in boreal coniferous forests

The three major threats to lichens in Sweden; forestry, air pollution, and structural changes in the agricultural landscape, are outlined. Forestry is the most serious. The majority of the red-listed lichens in forests are found in productive forests with a continuity in tree growth, but nearly 70% of the protected area in Sweden consists of alpine landscapes. Examples of important habitats with red-listed lichens are described, e.g. Alnus glutinosa marshes, alvar-vegetation, broad-leaved deciduous forests and different Picea abies forests. The use of selected indicator species of lichens and macrofungi (mainly red-listed species) in boreal coniferous forests provides information on continuity in tree growth of an area, and on earlier influences of forestry. Examples of indicator species for different types of forest are presented and discussed. In spite of the Swedish right of common accesso, collecting of lichens is forbidden without permission from the land-owner. Collecting in protected areas is allowed only with a permit obtained from the authorities.     

Evidence of a link between taboos and sacrifices and resource scarcity of ritual plants

Background

One of the main obstacles for the mainstreaming of religious traditions as tools for the conservation of nature is the limited applicability of research results in this field. We documented two different restrictions implemented by local people (taboos and sacrifices) related to the use of ritual plants in Benin (West Africa) and Gabon (Central Africa).

Methods

To see whether these restrictions reflected plant scarcity from an etic perspective (official threat status) and an emic viewpoint (perceived scarcity by local people), we conducted 102 interviews with traditional healers and adepts of traditional faiths.

Results

We documented a total of 618 ritual plants, from which 52 species were used in both countries. In Benin, the use of 63 of the 414 ritual plant species was restricted; while in Gabon 23 of the 256 ritual plants were associated with taboos and sacrifices. In Benin, restricted plants were significantly more often officially threatened, perceived as scarce, and actively protected than non-restricted plants. In the more forested and less densely populated Gabon, plants that were perceived as scarce were more often associated to local restrictions than officially threatened species.

Conclusions

These results prove the presence of a form of adaptive management where restrictions are related to resource scarcity and protection of ritual plant species. By providing baseline data on possibly endangered species, we demonstrate how plant use in the context of religious traditions can yield important information for conservation planning.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1746-4269-11-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Patterns of diversity,endemism and conservation: an example with Mexican species of Ternstroemiaceae Mirb. ex DC. (Tricolpates: Ericales)

The Ternstroemiaceae is a family of vascular plants with many taxonomic problems, basically in the delimitation of some of its species. Little is known about its world distribution and about the real state of conservation of its species. An analysis of the distribution patterns of the Mexican species was undertaken to provide information about the present status of species and possible conservation areas. Also, an analysis of the species richness, endemism centres, extension and location of the areas occupied by these species with a 1:50000 chart index was made. Finally, we propose some of the species of this family to be included in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and in the next Mexican Norma Oficial Mexicana 059.     

Geographical patterns and determinants of species richness in Mexico across selected families of vascular plants: implications for conservation

Mexico is considered a megadiverse country containing more than 10% of the world's biodiversity. The distribution of this species richness and endemism is different among the different Mexican states. We examined the species richness patterns of 13 families of vascular plants (including ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms) in Mexico using political divisions (states) as units of analysis. We analysed the species richness values (absolute richness, endemic richness and restrictive richness) of these plant families using stepwise multiple regression analysis, assessing their relationship with a set of 10 environmental variables (expressed as heterogeneity coefficients). A combined cluster analysis with multidimensional scaling analysis (MDS) and an analysis of similarities were also undertaken to define the spatial–geographical patterns. Additionally, we proposed a methodological strategy to determine which states of Mexico have priorities for conservation. Our results suggested that the three species richness values used were significantly predicted by environmental factors, especially by climatic heterogeneity. Notwithstanding that a linear pattern was recognized, the Mexican states were gathered in four groups, which were confirmed by the MDS and the cluster analysis: (1) the Yucatan Peninsula, (2) arid Mexico, (3) the Mexican Transition Zone and (4) the megadiverse states. We proposed that 12 Mexican states include all the environmental conditions and are candidates for developing conservation programmes: (1) Quintana Roo, Tabasco and Yucatán, (2) Baja California, Chihuahua and Sinaloa, (3) Guerrero, Jalisco and Nuevo León and (4) Chiapas, Oaxaca and Veracruz.     

Rare, threatened and alien species in the gastropod communities in the clay pit ponds in relation to the environmental factors (The Ciechanowska Upland, Central Poland)

The objectives of the present survey were to formulate a zoocenological analysis of the gastropod communities in clay pit ponds, as well as to determine the relationships between the gastropods and their environments, and to evaluate the water habitats in terms of their ecological-conservation value. The physical and chemical parameters of water, gastropod species and macrophytes occurring in the ponds indicate mesotrophic conditions. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) reveals a correlation between gastropod density and nitrates, a correlation between gastropod density and alkalinity, and additionally shows a correlation between gastropod density and chlorides. The pond surface area, nitrates, chlorides concentrate, alkalinity, and substratum have all affected these gastropod communities. The occurrence of the first permanent population of Ferrissia clessiniana (Jickeli, 1882) was recorded in Poland. Valvata naticina Menke 1845 has become a critically rare species (CR) due to the pollution of water environments. Five other species, e.g. Anisus vorticulus (Troschel, 1834) and Planorbis carinatus O.F. Müller, 1774 are recorded on the Polish Red List of Species. The clay pit ponds of the Ciechanowska Upland, because of their distinctive environmental features, provide a refuge where a number of rare, threatened and alien gastropod species live.     

Diversity of management practices required to ensure conservation of rare and locally threatened plant species in grasslands: a case study at a regional scale (Lorraine, France)

The Lorraine region, in northeast France, harbours 77 protected plantspecies whose main localities are in grasslands. About 80% of them are very rareor rare (less than 15 localities) in that territory and are threatened by changes inagriculture. These species occur in a large range of grassland habitats,reflecting variability of climatic, hydrological and edaphic parameters, butalso of agricultural practices. A more precise analysis of managementrequirements was carried out for seven of these species, Euphorbiapalustris, Aster amellus, Pulsatillaalba, Carex hordeistichos, Thalictrumminus ssp. majus, Botrychiummatricariifolium and Ophioglossum vulgatum, whichwere represented on a triangle whose corners correspond to grazing, cutting andno or very low exploitation. It confirmed the large diversity of managementpractices required to ensure conservation of rare and threatened grassland plantspecies, even at a local level. These appropriate conservation measures havetherefore to be carried out or, at least, monitored by specialized natureconservation organizations.     

Evaluation frameworks and conservation system of Latvian forests

Since the 1990s the forest conservation system in Latvia has developedin two parallel trends. This reflects both traditional application ofcentral European phytosociology by explicit forest communities (at least 19 associations inLatvian forests) and the recently appreciated method of key-habitats in forests.It consists of two attributes: indicator species–habitat specialists andcertain abiotic structures whose persistent presence on the spot is limited byintactness, time-scale and natural disturbances. Following the interpretationmanual of habitats in the European Union, eight forest habitats deserve particularconservation in Latvia. Altogether 8% of Latvian forests are formally protected,although only 1.5% meet the World Conservation Union Category 1where all human intervention must be excluded or minimized. Original analysis ofLatvian forest communities by their phytosociological standard and a comparisonwith similar assemblages elsewhere suggest that four forest groups deserveall-European conservation priority in Latvia because of intactness and largestands still survived or because of narrow distribution area. These are:Alnus glutinosa–Betula spp.–Fraxinus excelsior wetlands (ca. 3000 ha invarious formal reserve networks), northern outposts of mixed riverine hardwoodforests on the bank slopes and in semi-permanently moist ravines (ca. 240ha in reserves), floodplain and riverine Quercusrobur relic woodlands in eastern Latvia (ca. 120 ha inreserves) and dry Fennoscandian–Baltic Pinussylvestris woodlands on dolomites and limestones (no areas formallyprotected by law yet). Preliminary inventory of woodland key-habitats suggeststhat only 3% of Latvian forests can meet the desired criteria. This method,based on 53 indicator species indicating certain habitat properties and 25abiotic structures and stand features, has been found a valuable tool inforestry practice to evaluate the forest before any logging takes place and tomonitor spatial changes of biodiversity.     

Mexican native trouts: a review of their history and current systematic and conservation status

While biologists have been aware of theexistence of native Mexican trouts for over acentury, they have received little study. Thefew early studies that did much more thanmention their existence began in the 1930s andcontinued into the early 1960s, focusingprimarily on distributional surveys andtaxonomic analyses. Starting in the 1980s theBaja California rainbow trout became thesubject of more detailed studies, but verylittle remains known of mainland trouts of theSierra Madre Occidental. We review earlierstudies and report on our own collections andobservations made between 1975 and 2000. Wepresent newly discovered historical evidencethat leads us to conclude that a lostcutthroat trout, a lineage not previously knownfrom Mexico, was collected more than a centuryago from headwaters of the Río Conchos (amajor tributary of the Rio Grande (= RíoBravo)), a basin not previously considered toharbor a native trout. We review the lastcentury of regional natural resource managementand discuss our own observations of trouthabitats. Impacts of logging, road building andovergrazing are widespread and expanding. Manystreams suffer from heavy erosion, siltationand contamination, and though long-termhydrologic data are generally not available,there is evidence of decreased discharge inmany streams. These problems appear related toregion-wide land management practices as wellas recent regional drought. Trout cultureoperations using exotic rainbow trout haverapidly proliferated throughout the region,threatening genetic introgression and/orcompetition with native forms and predation onthem. Knowledge of distribution, abundance,relationships and taxonomy, not to mentionecology and population biology, of nativetrouts of the Sierra Madre Occidental remainsinadequate. Vast areas of most mainlanddrainages are still unexplored by fishcollectors, and even rudimentary informationregarding basic biology, ecology and populationstructure of stocks remains lacking.Concentrated exploration, research andmanagement of this long overlooked andundervalued resource are all urgently needed.The history of natural resources exploitationthat placed so many native trouts of thewestern United States on threatened andendangered species lists is repeating itself inthe Sierra Madre Occidental. Without concertedaction and development of region-widesocio-economic solutions for current, largelynon-sustainable resource management practices,native Mexican trout gene pools will soon be ingrave danger of extinction.