Axial and appendicular pneumaticity in Archaeopteryx

From the time of its discovery in 1860 to this day Archaeopteryx has been essential to our understanding of avian evolution. Despite the great diversity of plesiomorphic avialan (sensu Gauthier 1986) taxa discovered within the last decade, Archaeopteryx remains the most basal avialan taxon. A very unusual feature of extant birds is their lung structure, in which air diverticulae penetrate the bones. This has previously been reported in Archaeopteryx as well, in the cervical vertebrae of the Berlin specimen and in an anterior thoracal vertebra of the Eichstätt specimen. This indicates the presence of a cervical air sac. We show that the London specimen also has pneumatized anterior thoracal vertebrae, and, thus, that this feature was present in the most archaic avialans, as the London and Eichstätt specimens are different species. Furthermore, the pelvis of the London specimen shows clear signs of the presence of an abdominal air sac, indicating that at least two of the five air sacs present in modern birds were also present in Archaeopteryx. Evidence of pubic pneumaticity was also found in the same position in some extant ratites.     

The tenth skeletal specimen of Archaeopteryx

We describe the tenth skeletal specimen of the Upper Jurassic Archaeopterygidae. The almost complete and well-preserved skeleton is assigned to Archaeopteryx siemensii Dames, 1897 and provides significant new information on the osteology of the Archaeopterygidae. As is evident from the new specimen, the palatine of Archaeopteryx was tetraradiate as in non-avian theropods, and not triradiate as in other avians. Also with respect to the position of the ectopterygoid, the data obtained from the new specimen lead to a revision of a previous reconstruction of the palate of Archaeopteryx . The morphology of the coracoid and that of the proximal tarsals is, for the first time, clearly visible in the new specimen. The new specimen demonstrates the presence of a hyperextendible second toe in Archaeopteryx . This feature is otherwise known only from the basal avian Rahonavis and deinonychosaurs (Dromaeosauridae and Troodontidae), and its presence in Archaeopteryx provides additional evidence for a close relationship between deinonychosaurs and avians. The new specimen also shows that the first toe of Archaeopteryx was not fully reversed but spread medially, supporting previous assumptions that Archaeopteryx was only facultatively arboreal. Finally, we comment on the taxonomic composition of the Archaeopterygidae and conclude that Archaeopteryx bavarica Wellnhofer, 1993 is likely to be a junior synonym of A. siemensii , and Wellnhoferia grandis Elżanowski, 2001 a junior synonym of A. lithographica von Meyer, 1861.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 149 , 97–116.     

ZurArchaeopteryx-Nomenklatur: Missverst?ndnisse und L?sung

Zusammenfassung Der allgemein übernommene NameArchaeopteryx lithographica von Meyer, 1861, für die alten gefiederten V?gel aus dem Solnhofener Kalkstein sind Gegenstand mehrerer nomenklatorischer Untersuchungen gewesen und haben zu zwei Entscheidungen der Internationalen Kommission für Zoologische Nomenklatur geführt, den Namen zu kon-servieren. Vers?umt wurde bei diesen Entscheidungen, das Typusexemplar für diesen zweiteiligen Namen (Binomen) festzulegen. Es gibt erhebliche Meinungsverschiedenheiten darüber, ob der isolierte Federabdruck oder das Londoner Stück, ein Skelett mit Federn, der Holotypus ist. Aus unserer überprüfung der Frage schlie?en wir, dass von Meyer (1861b) klar beabsichtigt hat, seinen neuen Namen nur für den Federabdruck zu verwenden, den er untersucht und beschrieben hat (von Meyer 1861a, 1862). Wenn er auch das gerade entdeckte Skelett mit Federn (das Exemplar in London) erw?hnt und eine gewisse Beschreibung des Stückes in seiner Arbeit von 1862 gegeben hat, so hat von Meyer dieses Fundstück vor der Publikation seiner Arbeiten nicht gesehen und nie vorgeschlagen, dass sein neuer Name auch für dieses Fossil gelten sollte. Er hat nie ge?u?ert, dass der isolierte Federabdruck und das (ungesehene) Skelett mit Federn von der gleichen Art stammten. Und schlie?lich: als von Meyer (1861b) den NamenArchaeopteryx lithographica vorschlug, bezog er sich auf seine erste Beschreibung des Federabdrucks, die erschienen war, ehe er von dem Skelett mit Federn geh?rt hatte. Wir schlie?en daraus: Holotypus vonArchaeopteryx lithographica von Meyer, 1861, ist der isolierte Federabdruck (Hauptplatte in Berlin, Gegenplatte in München). Nach den Regeln für die zoologische Nomenklatur w?re der gültige Name für die Solnhofener Skelette mit Federn Archaeornis crassipes (von Meyer), 1857, der ursprünglich in der Kombination Pterodactylus crassipes ver?ffentlicht worden ist. Der Gebrauch dieses Namens würde aber zu Verwirrung und Unsicherheit führen und verstie?e damit gegen eines der Ziele der Nomenklaturregeln, n?mlich Eindeutigkeit und Stabilit?t der Namen zu gew?hrleisten. Eine L?sung für dieses nomenklatorische Durcheinander kann durch den Antrag an die ICZN erreicht werden, den isolierten Federabdruck als Holotypus zu unterdrücken und das Londoner Stück zum Neotypus zu erkl?ren. Das haben wir in einem eigenen Antrag an die ICNZ getan. Dieses Vorgehen wird das BinomenArchaeopteryx lithographica an ein Typusexemplar binden, das unzweideutig einem wohl definierten Gattungs- und Art-Taxon angeh?rt, und würde den Gebrauch des gut eingeführten Namens für den wichtigsten fossilen Vogel sichern.

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Nomenclature of Archaeopteryx: Misunderstandings and solution

Summary The generally accepted nameArchaeopteryx lithographica von Meyer, 1861, for the ancient feathered birds from the Solnhofen limestones has been the subject of a number of nomenclatural analyses, terminating in two decisions by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature to conserve this name. Overlooked in these decisions was the determination of the type specimen for this binomen. A strong difference of opinion exists on whether the first found isolated feather impression or the London specimen of a feathered skeleton is the holotype. We conclude that the isolated feather impression (main slab in Berlin and counterslab in Munich) is the holotype ofArchaeopteryx lithographica von Meyer, 1861. This isolated feather cannot be identified with certainty to any generic taxa and/or any specific taxa containing any of the Solnhofen feathered skeletons; hence the nameArchaeopteryx lithographica would be a nomen dubium and cannot serve as the valid name for any generic or specific taxa containing the feathered skeletons. Resolution of this nomenclatural problem can be achieved by requesting the ICZN to set aside the isolated feather impression as the holotype and to declare the London specimen as the neotype, which we have done in a separate application to the ICZN.

     

What size was Archaeopteryx?

The size (mass) of Archaeopteryx , primarily the Berlin specimen, has been estimated in two ways. A new three-dimensional reconstruction suggests a mass of no more than 271 g. Application of allometric equations derived from both birds and mammals to various linear dimensions yields a range of estimates from 112 to 2269 g, but all the more plausible estimates lie in the range 220–330 g.     

Diet and dentition in tropical ariid catfishes from Australia

Synopsis The diets of 13 species of ariid catfishes from the tropical waters of the Gulf of Carpentaria are described and compared. Fishes were collected from two estuaries and inshore and offshore marine areas. Up to 10 species have been recorded from a single estuary. Although all are carnivorous and consume a variety of prey, diet analyses and statistical ordination reveal three feeding guilds - piscivores, polychaete-eaters and molluscivores. The diets of most species are similar between sites. There are strong relationships between dietary guild and the size and arrangement of the palatine teeth. The piscivorous group of catfish (guild 1) have large mouths with relatively large multiple palatine tooth plates, either in a band or in a triangular pattern and armed with sharp recurved teeth. The primarily polychaete-feeding group (guild 2) have a variable mouth size but it is usually smaller than that of guild 1 fish; their palatine teeth plates are fewer and smaller, and they have small, sharp recurved teeth. Guild 3 eat mainly molluscs, and have a small mouth and large posteriorly situated palatine plates with globular, truncated teeth. Overlaps in diet between species are probably reduced by differential distribution patterns within estuaries and different habitat preferences. The mouth-width and tooth-plate arrangements of ariids in tropical Australia are suitable for dealing with broad classes of prey rather than specific items, conferring dietary flexibility. This probably optimizes the trade-off for most species between occupation of broad feeding niches and the ability to shift diet easily.     

THE FLYING ABILITY OF ARCHAEOPTERYX

Estimates for the wing span, mass and wing area of Archaeopteryx lithographica are provided, and these are used to derive certain of the flight parameters. From the data available on the lengths of skeletal components, amplified by examination of casts of the specimens and full-size enlargements of photographs, the wing span is estimated at 58–59 cm and the wing area as 479 cm2. To judge from animals of similar size, the mass was probably about 200 g. These figures give an estimated minimum flying speed of 7-6 m/sec and a wing loading of 0–42 gf/cm2. These figures are, and must be from their method of derivation, comparable with those of similar sized modern birds, These data are used to reconsider the possibility of flapping flight in this bird. It is suggested that the primitive anatomy of the pectoral skeleton has been somewhat over-emphasized, and it is shown that the pectoral crest on the humerus was relatively very large compared with modern birds. The power required to fly would require muscular physiology outside the range of mammalian (at least, human) capability, but well within the modern avian range. It is felt that Archaeopteryx was capable of flapping flight, but that it was probably not long sustained.     

FOSSILE HIRUDINEA AUS DEM OBERJURA VON BAYERN

The first certain fossil species of Hirudinea, Epitrachys rugosus Ehlers 1869 and Palaeohirudo eichstaettensis n. gen., n. sp., are described from the Upper Jurassic ' Lithographen-Schiefer' of Kehlheim and Eichstätt (Bavaria). Hitherto, Epitrachys rugosus Ehlers 1868 was assigned to Gephyrea Quatrefages. 1847.     

New evolutionary evidence of Grylloblattida from the Middle Jurassic of Inner Mongolia, north-east China (Insecta, Polyneoptera)

The small modern insect order Grylloblattida has an abundant fossil record during the Late Palaeozoic and the Mesozoicirca. The relationships between these fossil taxa and the modern grylloblattids remain unclear because most of them are based on isolated wings or have poorly preserved body features. Modern grylloblattids are wingless insects. The new grylloblattid family Plesioblattogryllidae fam. nov. is erected for the new genus and species Plesioblattogryllus magnificus gen. nov., sp. nov. , from the Middle Jurassic of north-eastern China. The well-preserved specimen provides further evidence that could support its close relationships with the modern grylloblattids: (1) several very similar head structures, e.g. developed laciniae with inner row of setae, maxillary palps segmented into five, labial palps segmented into three, large labrum, and morphology of antenna; (2) paired eoplantulae on tarsomeres 1–4; (3) long ovipositor and large eggs comparable with those of modern taxa. The new genus has strongly developed mandibles with sharp pointed apical teeth and strong marginal teeth, and strong hook-like fore claws with basal teeth, suggesting it was carnivorous. The major differences between the extinct and extant Grylloblattida, such as the lack of wings, the eyes and ocelli either degenerated or absent, and the thorax degenerated in the modern forms, are probably related to their adaptation to their life under rocks and rock-crawler habits.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 152 , 17–24.     

Die Orientierung der Fingerkrallen der V?gel

As a result of pronation of the forelimb in the spread wing the peaks of the digital claws are orientated backwards. The 6th (Solnhofen) specimen ofArchaeopteryx demonstrates that its digital claws were orientated in the same way. Given is an interpretation of the position of the claws of Berlin and Eichstätt specimen. Shown are the consequences for theories of origin of birds' flight, functions of the digital claws and other problems.     

The first specimen of Archaeopteryx from the Upper Jurassic Mörnsheim Formation of Germany

From an initial isolated position as the oldest evolutionary prototype of a bird, Archaeopteryx has, as a result of recent fossil discoveries, become embedded in a rich phylogenetic context of both more and less crownward stem-group birds. This has prompted debate over whether Archaeopteryx is simply a convergently bird-like non-avialan theropod. Here we show, using the first synchrotron microtomographic examination of the genus, that the eighth or Daiting specimen of Archaeopteryx possesses a character suite that robustly constrains it as a basal avialan (primitive bird). The specimen, which comes from the Mörnsheim Formation and is thus younger than the other specimens from the underlying Solnhofen Formation, is distinctive enough to merit designation as a new species, Archaeopteryx albersdoerferi sp. nov., but is recovered in close phylogenetic proximity to Archaeopteryx lithographica. Skeletal innovations of the Daiting specimen, such as fusion and pneumatization of the cranial bones, well vascularized pectoral girdle and wing elements, and a reinforced configuration of carpals and metacarpals, suggest that it may have had more characters seen in flying birds than the older Archaeopteryx lithographica. These innovations appear to be convergent on those of more crownward avialans, suggesting that Bavarian archaeopterygids independently acquired increasingly bird-like traits over time. Such mosaic evolution and iterative exploration of adaptive space may be typical for major functional transitions like the origin of flight.     

New hominid fossils from the Swartkrans formation (1979-1986 excavations): craniodental specimens

Seventy-two individually numbered hominid craniodental fossils from recent excavations at Swartkrans are described. All derive from in situ decalcified breccia and/or unconsolidated sediments. A total of 20 specimens, representing 13 to 16 individuals derive from Member 1 "Lower Bank," two teeth derive from sediments along the Member 1-2 Interface, 38 fossils representing 19 to 24 individuals come from Member 2, and 12 teeth representing 9 to 11 individuals derive from Member 3. All but four of the specimens are attributable at the generic level; one specimen from Member 1 "Lower Bank" and five specimens from Member 2 are attributed to Homo, while the others represent Paranthropus. The proportional representation of Homo in the Swartkrans Formation is markedly higher in Member 2 (c. 33%) than in the Member 1 "Lower Bank" (c. 8%) and Member 1 "Hanging Remnant" (c. 5%) samples.     

Small Theropod Teeth from the Late Cretaceous of the San Juan Basin,Northwestern New Mexico and Their Implications for Understanding Latest Cretaceous Dinosaur Evolution

Studying the evolution and biogeographic distribution of dinosaurs during the latest Cretaceous is critical for better understanding the end-Cretaceous extinction event that killed off all non-avian dinosaurs. Western North America contains among the best records of Late Cretaceous terrestrial vertebrates in the world, but is biased against small-bodied dinosaurs. Isolated teeth are the primary evidence for understanding the diversity and evolution of small-bodied theropod dinosaurs during the Late Cretaceous, but few such specimens have been well documented from outside of the northern Rockies, making it difficult to assess Late Cretaceous dinosaur diversity and biogeographic patterns. We describe small theropod teeth from the San Juan Basin of northwestern New Mexico. These specimens were collected from strata spanning Santonian – Maastrichtian. We grouped isolated theropod teeth into several morphotypes, which we assigned to higher-level theropod clades based on possession of phylogenetic synapomorphies. We then used principal components analysis and discriminant function analyses to gauge whether the San Juan Basin teeth overlap with, or are quantitatively distinct from, similar tooth morphotypes from other geographic areas. The San Juan Basin contains a diverse record of small theropods. Late Campanian assemblages differ from approximately co-eval assemblages of the northern Rockies in being less diverse with only rare representatives of troodontids and a Dromaeosaurus-like taxon. We also provide evidence that erect and recurved morphs of a Richardoestesia-like taxon represent a single heterodont species. A late Maastrichtian assemblage is dominated by a distinct troodontid. The differences between northern and southern faunas based on isolated theropod teeth provide evidence for provinciality in the late Campanian and the late Maastrichtian of North America. However, there is no indication that major components of small-bodied theropod diversity were lost during the Maastrichtian in New Mexico. The same pattern seen in northern faunas, which may provide evidence for an abrupt dinosaur extinction.     

A New Marine Reptile (Sauropterygia) from New Zealand: Further Evidence for A Late Cretaceous Austral Radiation of Cryptoclidid Plesiosaurs

Kaiwhekea katiki gen. et sp. nov. represents the first described cryptoclidid plesiosaurian from New Zealand. It is one of the largest cryptoclidids known, at a length of over 6.5 m, and represents the third reported genus of austral Late Cretaceous cryptoclidids. Kaiwhekea katiki is from siltstones of the Katiki Formation, upper Haumurian Stage (Cenomanian–Maastrichtian; c. 69–70 Ma) of coastal Otago, South Island, New Zealand. In the Late Cretaceous, the locality lay close to the polar circle. The holotype and only known specimen is an articulated skeleton with skull, preserved mostly as natural molds, but which lacks the forelimbs and pectoral girdle. The skull is relatively large and possesses several distinct characters, including a substantial, deep, jugal. There are about 43 upper and 42 lower teeth in each jaw quadrant; all are homodont, slim, and slightly recurved, lacking prominent ornament. Kaiwhekea probably took single soft-bodied prey. Based on cranial structure, it clearly belongs with the Cryptoclididae, but is not certainly close to the southern Late Cretaceous cryptoclidids Morturneria (Seymour Island, Antarctica) and Aristonectes (Chile, Argentina).     

中国叉丝壳属分类研究——Ⅴ.忍冬科上的新种和已知种

本文报道寄生于我国忍冬科植物上的叉丝壳属白粉菌5个种:双盾叉丝壳Microsphacra dipeltae Yu et Lai sp. nov., 二郎山叉丝壳M. erlangshanensis Yu sp. nov.,忍冬叉丝壳M. lonicerae(DC.)Winter,万布叉丝壳M. van-brunctiana Gerard和荚蒾叉丝壳M.viburni(Duby)Blumer,前二者为新种;对新种作了汉文和拉丁文描述,并附有形态图。每一个种都列有寄主种类和国内外分布,并讨论了它们与邻近种之间的区别。     

尾羽龙(Caudipteryx)的新材料及其重要骨骼特征的补充和修订

尾羽龙和原始祖鸟一起被认为是最早发现的带有真正鸟类羽毛的恐龙（Ji et al., 1998）,迄今已发现的尾羽龙包括邹氏尾羽龙（Caudipteryx zoui）和董氏尾羽龙（Caudipteryx dongi）两种（周忠和、汪筱林,2000）,前者包括保存在中国地质博物馆的NGMC 97*4朅和NGMC 97*9朅两件标本,而后者依据的材料仅为保存在中国科学院古脊椎动物与古人类研究所的V 12344。以上标本都不是十分完整。本文依据最近新发现的两件几乎完整的尾羽龙标本,对该属的一些重要形态特征进行补充和修订,以期对其系统关系的讨论及其他相关理论问题的研究提供新的…     

A new species of Estinnophyton from the Lower Devonian Posongchong Formation, Yunnan, China; its phylogenetic and palaeophytogeographical significance

A new species of early vascular land plant, Estinnophyton yunnanense , is described from the Lower Devonian (upper Pragian) Posongchong Formation at Zhichang village, Gumu Town, Wenshan District, Yunnan Province, China. This plant possesses aerial stems with isotomous branching. The leaves are slender, once- or twice-bifurcated, and arranged in low spirals or pseudowhorls. Fertile leaves are morphologically identical to the vegetative ones, clustered on the axis, forming a loose strobilus-like structure. There are three to six fertile leaves in each gyre. Two ovoid-elongate sporangia are singly attached to the adaxial surface each subtended by a recurved stalk, either at the base of each segment in a once-bifurcate fertile leaf or below the points of successive divisions in a twice-bifurcate fertile leaf. Estinnophyton yunnanense differs from two other species described previously from Europe, E .  gracile and E .  wahnbachense , mainly in possessing two single stalked sporangia on each fertile leaf rather than two pairs of sporangia, as well as in the dimensions of its leaves. In view of the complex taxonomy and nomenclature surrounding the type material of Estinnophyton , we considered possible emendation of the generic diagnosis based on the new Chinese material. Following comparison with typical members of the Protolepidodendrales and other taxa, Estinnophyton is considered to have had a closer affinity with primitive sphenopsids than the protolepidodendralean lycopsids. A comparison between Chinese and European floras containing Estinnophyton indicates that South China and Western Europe had floristic elements in common although they were in different phytogeographical units during the Early Devonian epoch.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 146 , 201–216.     

Morphological evidence for the biological role of caniniform teeth in combtooth blennies (Blenniidae, Teleostei)

Combtooth blennies have recurved, fang-like caniniform teeth at the rear end of a single row of incisiform teeth. The lengths and positions of these canines were measured in the lower jaws of males of 14 species of Mediterranean Blenniidae. In four species, lower jaw canines were measured in males and females, while in one species, the upper jaw canines of both sexes were also measured. Relative (to body length) canine length in males tends to be significantly greater (10–40%) than in females. There are significant interspecific differences in relative canine length, with smaller species tending to have relatively larger teeth. No significant correlation was obtained between canine length and importance of animal prey in the diet, nor with 'hole fit' of males, which may be related with the intensity of paternal care. We suggest that canines in combtooth blennies are predominately used for predator deterrence and agonistic interactions.     

New records of archaic ungulates from the Lower Eocene of Sanshui Basin,Guangdong, China

Phenacolophidae is a group of little known archaic ungulates from the Late Paleocene to Middle Eocene of Asia. Its phylogenetic relationships with other altungulates have remained uncertain, partly because most phenacolophids are represented by poorly preserved material. Here we report a new phenacolophid, Sanshuilophus zhaoi gen. et sp. nov., from the Lower Eocene Huayong Formation of the Sanshui Basin, Guangdong, China. Although still fragmentary, the new specimens show that the new taxon is characterised by relatively large body size (except for Zaisanolophus), sub-molariform premolars, relatively higher bilophodont molars that lack the mesostyle, and tooth enamel microstructure with true prisms and typical Hunter-Schreger bands (HSB). With the new specimens and a review of the published phenacolophid material, we are able to provide an alternative identification for the tooth loci for the type specimen of Phenacolophus and further present an emended diagnosis for Phenacolophidae. The tooth morphology and enamel microstructure provide new evidence to support the notion that phenacolophids differ from species of Embrithopoda in having low-crown teeth, considerably slanting lophids, distinct paralophids and lacking the arsinoitheriid radial enamel. Phenacolophidae should not be included in Tethytheria but probably represent a stem group for altungulates, if not for all archaic ungulates.