Comparison of posture among adolescent male volleyball players and non-athletes

Due to high training loads and frequently repeated unilateral exercises, several types of sports training can have an impact on the process of posture development in young athletes. The objective of the study was to assess and compare the postures of adolescent male volleyball players and their non-training peers. The study group comprised 104 volleyball players while the control group consisted of 114 non-training individuals aged 14-16 years. Body posture was assessed by the Moiré method. The volleyball players were significantly taller, and had greater body weight and fat-free mass. The analysis of posture relative to symmetry in the frontal and transverse planes did not show any significant differences between the volleyball players and non-athletes. Postural asymmetries were observed in both the volleyball players and the control participants. Lumbar lordosis was significantly less defined in the volleyball players compared to non-training individuals while no difference was observed in thoracic kyphosis. All athletes demonstrated a loss of lumbar lordosis and an increase in thoracic kyphosis. Significant differences in anteroposterior curvature of the spine between the volleyball players and the non-athletes might be associated with both training and body height. Considering the asymmetric spine overloads which frequently occur in sports training, meticulous posture assessment in young athletes seems well justified.     

Somatotypes of premenarcheal athletes and non-athletes

One-hundred thirty-four premenarcheal girls between the ages of 7 and 15 years were somatotyped according to the Health-Carter technique. Sexual maturation was determined by self-assessed Tanner stages. Statistical analysis was completed on 50 athletes (representing seven sports) and 29 non-athletes over the age of 10 years. The mean somatotype for the athletes was calculated to be 2.4-3.6-3.9 and for the non-athletes 3.7-3.7-3.6. Single component ANOVA's revealed that the athletes were significantly less endomorphic (p less than 0.01) than the non-athletes. The overall somatotype ratings and the equality of dispersion about the means were significantly different between the athletes and non-athletes. The single highest category for the athletes was mesomorph-ectomorph and for the non-athletes, mesomorphic-endomorph. Significant negative correlations were obtained between mesomorphy and breast development (-0.33, p less than 0.05) and mesomorphy and pubic hair development (-0.44, p less than 0.01) for the athletes. Significant positive correlations were obtained between endomorphy and breast development (0.55, p less than 0.01) and endomorphy and pubic hair development (0.45, p less than 0.05) for the non-athletes. The mean somatotype for the gymnasts was 2.1-3.9-3.6 and for the swimmers 2.5-3.4-4.1. These two groups were significantly different from each other on each separate component and overall somatotype, but not in equality of dispersion. The results support the conclusion that premenarcheal athletes are morphologically different from non-athletes despite their youth and from each other based on sport specificity.     

Relationship between change in BMI with age and delayed menarche in female athletes

Body mass index (BMI) is widely used as an index of obesity in people from the school age children to adults. However, the relationship between the change in BMI with age and the coming of menarche has not been discussed as there are few reports on the changes in BMI with age. In this study, the change in BMI with age was examined by applying the wavelet interpolation method (WIM), and a critical period for body fat in terms of the coming of menarche was estimated from the growth velocity. We investigated delayed menarche according to the influence of stress in athletes by comparing delayed menarche between athletes and non-athletes in relation to the critical period. Data were obtained from 144 female athletes in their first year at university in the Tokai area, all of whom had competed in a national sports competition in high school (athlete group). Health examination records showing these subjects' heights and weights from the first grade of elementary school to the final year of high school (1984-1995) were collected and BMI was calculated for each grade. Ages at menarche were ascertained from questionnaires. A control group of 73 non-athletes was similarly examined. The age at maximum peak velocity (MPV) derived from the growth (aging) distance curve of BMI was determined in the control group to be 11.96+/-0.97 years old. This age at MPV of BMI was almost the same as the age at menarche (12.11+/-0.93 years old). Therefore, this age at MPV of BMI is estimated to be the critical period of body fat for the coming of menarche. The interval between the age at MPV of BMI and age at menarche was 0.74+/-1.30 years in the athlete group and 0.15+/-0.81 years in the control group, so there was a significant difference (P<0.01) between the two groups. It is suggested that the delayed menarche in athletes is influenced by the stress of regular sports training.     

Comparison of blood pro/antioxidant levels before and after acute exercise in athletes and non-athletes

The aims of our study were to assess the redox state of adolescent athletes and non-athletes both at rest and after acute exposure to physical load and to find relations between parameters of redox state and morphofunctional characteristics of subjects. 58 young handball players and 37 non-athletes were subjected to body composition analysis, measuring of maximal oxygen consumption and blood sampling immediately before and after a maximal progressive exercise test. At rest, athletes had significantly higher superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity, higher levels of glutathione (GSH) and nitric oxide (NO) and lower levels of lipid peroxidation (TBARS) compared with non-athletes. A maximal exercise test induced statistically significant rise of superoxide anion radical (O2-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and NO levels in non-athletes, while TBARS levels decreased. Athletes experienced the fall in NO levels and the fall in CAT activity. After exercise, athletes had significantly lower levels of O2- compared with non-athletes. Two way repeated measures ANOVA showed that the response of O2-, NO and TBARS to the exercise test was dependent on the sports engagement (training experience) of subjects. Significant correlations between morphofunctional and redox parameters were found. These results suggest that physical fitness affects redox homeostasis.     

Gender differences in nutritional behavior and weight status during early and late adolescence

The current study aimed to determine gender differences in nutritional habits, eating behaviour, weight status, body image and weight control practices during early and late adolescence. 677 Viennese pupils (253 boys and 424 girls) between the ages 10 and 18 years (x = 14.1 yrs; +/- 2.2) were enrolled in the study. Weight status was determined by means of body mass index percentiles. To assess eating behavior, food preferences, body image and weight control practices, a 48 item questionnaire was developed. Significant gender differences in weight status were observable during late adolescence only. Girls are significantly less satisfied with their body weight. Furthermore, girls practice dieting and weight control to avoid any weight gain more frequently than boys. Gender differences in eating behavior intensified from early to late adolescence. From early to late adolescence, meal size decreased among girls, while it remains stabile or increased among boys. Boys eat generally more than girls. Furthermore, boys preferred meat and fast food while girls consumed fruits, vegetables and healthy food significantly more frequently. These gender differences are explained by gender specific energetic demands and culture typical beauty ideals.     

Skeletal mass in adolescent male athletes and nonathletes: relationships with high-impact sports

Dias Quiterio, AL, Canero, EA, Baptista, FM, and Sardinha, LB. Skeletal mass in adolescent male athletes and nonathletes: relationships with high-impact sports. J Strength Cond Res 25(12): 3439-3447, 2011-This study examined the relationships between the practice of different categories of sports (high-impact vs. nonimpact) and bone status in adolescent male athletes and investigated differences from an age-matched control group. A total of 54 adolescent male athletes and 26 adolescent nonathletes were evaluated. Bone mineral density, bone mineral content (BMC), and bone area at the whole-body, limbs, and lumbar spine were determined by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, along with total and regional fat-free mass and body fat. The high-impact group included 34 athletes: 9 gymnasts, 18 basketball players, and 7 handball players (age: 15.7 ± 1.6 years; weight: 72.0 ± 15.0 kg; height: 178.5 ± 12.5 cm). The nonimpact group consisted of 20 swimmers (age: 16.4 ± 2.5 years; weight: 66.9 ± 10.4 kg; height: 173.7 ± 10.9 cm). The nonathletic control group included 26 male adolescents (age: 15.9 ± 2.8 years; weight: 64.7 ± 16.3 kg; height: 168.6 ± 15.1 cm). No differences were observed between the nonimpact and the control group in all bone variables, before and after adjustments for maturation level, body weight, and height (p > 0.05). After adjustments for these variables, the high-impact group displayed greater bone mass in most of the measured sites when compared to the other 2 groups (p < 0.001). Subjects in the nonimpact group showed lower values of BMC, particularly in the lower limbs, than both the high-impact and the nonathletic control groups (p < 0.05) after adjustments for maturation, high, and fat-free mass. This study reinforces the positive associations between high-impact physical activities and skeletal health in adolescent boys.     

The study of athletes' body perception and gender role

In this study, it has been aimed to examine athletes' body perception and gender role. 120 male athletes and 120 non-athletic male university students participated in the study voluntarily. In the study, as the data collecting means, The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-MBSRQ was used in order to determine males' body perception levels, BEM Sex Role Inventory-BSRI was used to determine gender roles and Personal Information Form developed by the researcher was used to ascertain personal features of the subjects. When the athletes' body perception levels are examined, the features of physical competence orientation, health orientation, appearance evaluation, fitness evaluation, health evaluation and body areas satisfaction have been found to be higher than non-athletes' (p < 0.05). On the other hand; no difference has been found between athletes and non-athletes in terms of appearance orientation (p > 0.05). When gender roles are examined, athletes have been found to have higher values than non-athletes' in terms of masculinity, femininity and social desirability (p < 0.05). To conclude; as well as considering sports as a factor increasing individuals' body perception level and gender role, it is also thought that athletes care about health, appearance and physical competence and are glad of body parts because of their muscled body structure developing due to the exercises and have flexible personality to show feminine and masculine features that the environment needs in terms of gender role.     

The ALDH2 rs671 polymorphism is associated with athletic status and muscle strength in a Japanese population

Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) catalyses aldehyde species, including alcohol metabolites, mainly in the liver. We recently observed that ALDH2 is also expressed in skeletal muscle mitochondria; thus, we hypothesize that rs671 polymorphism-promoted functional loss of ALDH2 may induce deleterious effects in human skeletal muscle. We aimed to clarify the association of the ALDH2 rs671 polymorphism with muscle phenotypes and athletic capacity in a large Japanese cohort. A total of 3,055 subjects, comprising 1,714 athletes and 1,341 healthy control subjects (non-athletes), participated in this study. Non-athletes completed a questionnaire regarding their exercise habits, and were subjected to grip strength, 30-s chair stand, and 8-ft walking tests to assess muscle function. The ALDH2 GG, GA, and AA genotypes were detected at a frequency of 56%, 37%, and 7% among athletes, and of 54%, 37%, and 9% among non-athletes, respectively. The minor allele frequency was 25% in athletes and 28% in controls. Notably, ALDH2 genotype frequencies differed significantly between athletes and non-athletes (genotype: p = 0.048, allele: p = 0.021), with the AA genotype occurring at a significantly lower frequency among mixed-event athletes compared to non-athletes (p = 0.010). Furthermore, non-athletes who harboured GG and GA genotypes exhibited better muscle strength than those who carried the AA genotype (after adjustments for age, sex, body mass index, and exercise habits). The AA genotype and A allele of the ALDH2 rs671 polymorphism were associated with a reduced athletic capacity and poorer muscle phenotypes in the analysed Japanese cohort; thus, impaired ALDH2 activity may attenuate muscle function.     

Weight Control Behaviors Among Adult Men and Women: Cause for Concern?

NEUMARK-SZTAINER, DIANNE, NANCY E. SHERWOOD, SIMONE A. FRENCH, AND ROBERT W. JEFFERY. Weight control behaviors among adult men and women: cause for concern? Obes Res. Objectives To examine gender differences in weight control behaviors; their duration and the consistency of their use over a 3-year period; and variations of these behaviors by body mass index (BMI). Research Methods and Procedures The study population included 714 women and 229 men participating in a community-based weight gain prevention program who completed surveys about their weight control behaviors annually for 3 years. General dieting behaviors (e.g., current, regular, and past dieting), dietary restraint (using Restrained Eating subscale of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire), and specific weight control practices (e.g., increasing exercise, skipping meals, and taking laxatives) were assessed. Results Women were more likely than men to report weight control behaviors, with particularly strong associations found between gender and “history of dieting” (odds ratio = 8.1) and “participation in an organized weight loss program” (odds ratio = 11.7). Among both genders, exercise was the most frequently reported specific weight loss practice (66% of women and 53% of men), followed by decreasing fat intake (62% of women and 48% of men). The use of at least one unhealthy weight control behavior over the past year was reported by 22% of the women and 17% of the men. Gender differences were not found for duration of use of most of the specific weight control practices over the past year, or for consistency of general dieting behaviors and dietary restraint over time. Although both gender and BMI were strongly associated with dieting behaviors, interactions between gender and BMI on prevalence rates of dieting were not significant. Discussion Although weight control behaviors were more prevalent among women than men, in general, large gender differences were not found in the types of behaviors used and the duration and consistency of their use. The high percentages of adults using healthy methods of weight control was encouraging. However, there is still cause for concern, in that unhealthy weight control practices were also reported by a significant percentage of the population.     

Ventilatory and heart rate chemosensitivity in track-and-field athletes

Fifty-four male track-and-field athletes and 18 male non-athletes were examined by isocapnic progressive hypoxia and CO2 rebreathing tests. Ventilatory and heart rate (HR) responses to hypoxia were analysed by a hyperbolic relationship and the ventilatory response to hypercapnia by a linear regression. The results showed that ventilatory sensitivity during hypoxia was significantly attenuated in the long-distance runners and sprinters compared to the non-athletes. Although heart rate sensitivity during hypoxia in none of the athletes showed a significant difference compared to that of the non-athletes, baseline HR in the long-distance runners was significantly lower than that of the non-athletes. None of the athletes showed significant differences in ventilatory sensitivity during hypercapnia compared to the non-athletes.     

Effect of Chronic Athletic Activity on Brown Fat in Young Women

BackgroundThe effect of chronic exercise activity on brown adipose tissue (BAT) is not clear, with some studies showing positive and others showing negative associations. Chronic exercise is associated with increased resting energy expenditure (REE) secondary to increased lean mass and a probable increase in BAT. Many athletes are in a state of relative energy deficit suggested by lower fat mass and hypothalamic amenorrhea. States of severe energy deficit such as anorexia nervosa are associated with reduced BAT. There are no data regarding the impact of chronic exercise activity on BAT volume or activity in young women and it is unclear whether relative energy deficiency modifies the effects of exercise on BAT.PurposeWe assessed cold induced BAT volume and activity in young female athletes compared with non-athletes, and further evaluated associations of BAT with measures of REE, body composition and menstrual status.MethodsThe protocol was approved by our Institutional Review Board. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to study initiation. This was a cross-sectional study of 24 women (16 athletes and8 non-athletes) between 18–25 years of age. Athletes were either oligo-amenorrheic (n = 8) or eumenorrheic (n = 8).We used PET/CT scans to determine cold induced BAT activity, VMAX Encore 29 metabolic cart to obtain measures of REE, and DXA for body composition.ResultsAthletes and non-athletes did not differ for age or BMI. Compared with non-athletes, athletes had lower percent body fat (p = 0.002), higher percent lean mass (p = 0.01) and trended higher in REE (p = 0.09). BAT volume and activity in athletes trended lower than in non-athletes (p = 0.06; p = 0.07, respectively). We found negative associations of BAT activity with duration of amenorrhea (r = -0.46, p = 0.02).BAT volume correlated inversely with lean mass (r = -0.46, p = 0.02), and positively with percent body fat, irisin and thyroid hormones.ConclusionsOur study shows a trend for lower BAT in young female athletes compared with non-athletes, and shows associations of brown fat with menstrual status and body composition. Brown fat may undergo adaptive reductions with increasing energy deficit.     

Detecting Body Fat–A Weighty Problem BMI versus Subcutaneous Fat Patterns in Athletes and Non-Athletes

We aimed to describe the relationship between BMI and the subcutaneous adipose tissue topography within young athletes and non-athletic controls, to comparatively evaluate the diagnostic powers of subcutaneous adipose tissue thicknesses at different body sites, furthermore to explore appropriate cut-offs to discriminate between athletes and controls. Measurements were determined in 64 males and 42 females, who were subsequently separated into two even groups (athletes and non-athletes). The optical device LIPOMETER was applied at standardised body sites to measure the thickness of subcutaneous adipose tissue layers. To calculate the power of the different body sites and the BMI to discriminate between athletes and non-athletes, receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was performed. In men, the neck (optimal cut-off value 2.3 mm) and trunk (optimal cut-off value 15.5 mm) provided the strongest discrimination power: with 90.6% (58 of 64) of the subjects being correctly classified into athletes or non-athletes. Discrimination power of the BMI values was 64.1% (41 of 64 were correctly classified). In women, the upper back (optimal cut-off value 3.3 mm) and arms (optimal cut-off value 15.9 mm) provided the strongest discrimination power with 88.1% (37 of 42 being correctly classified). When using BMI to discriminate between athletes and non-athletes only 52.4% (22 of 42) were correctly classified. These results suggest that compared to BMI levels, subcutaneous fat patterns are a more accurate way of discriminating between athletes and non-athletes. In particular the neck and the trunk compartment in men and the upper back and arms compartment in women, were the best sites to discriminate between young athletes and non-athletes on the basis of their fat patterns.     

The risk of sports activities--the injuries of the Achilles tendon in sportsmen

The aim of this study was to determine whether professional sports activities and intensive training practice affect pathological changes of the Achilles tendon. We also aimed to investigate whether these injuries primarily occur earlier or later in life. This was a cross sectional study of 214 athletes and non-athletes between the ages of 17-66. Participants were divided into four groups: 63 active young athletes, 64 young persons not involved in sports, 6 elderly athletes and 58 elderly people who did not participate in intensive athletic activities during their lifetimes. Ultrasound measurements of the Achilles tendon were performed on all participants. All participants also completed a self-administered survey to collect demographic information and data on athletic participation. Data were analyzed using the chi-square test and Fisher's exact test. Overall, those who were active athletes sought medical care more often than those who did not participate regularly in sports. Twenty-seven (33%) of young athletes had some Achilles tendon pathology, compared to 9 (14%) younger non-athletes. A total of 36 (64%) of elderly athletes were diagnosed with Achilles tendon disorders, compared to 15 (26%) of elderly people who were not active in sports. Microtears, acute tendonitis and peritendonitis were associated with younger age. By contrast, calcifications, scar tissue, and partial or complete rupture were only seen in the elderly     

Special feature for the Olympics: effects of exercise on the immune system: exercise effects on systemic immunity

Heavy exertion has acute and chronic influences on systemic immunity. In the resting state, the immune systems of athletes and non-athletes are more similar than disparate with the exception of NK cell activity, which tends to be elevated in athletes. Many components of the immune system exhibit adverse change after prolonged, heavy exertion. These immune changes occur in several compartments of the immune system and body (e.g. the skin, upper respiratory tract mucosal tissue, lung, blood and muscle). Although still open to interpretation, most exercise immunologists believe that during this 'open window' of impaired immunity (which may last between 3 and 72 h, depending on the immune measure) viruses and bacteria may gain a foothold, increasing the risk of subclinical and clinical infection. The infection risk may be amplified when other factors related to immune function are present, including exposure to novel pathogens during travel, lack of sleep, severe mental stress, malnutrition or weight loss.     

Lactate dehydrogenase activity as an index of muscle tissue metabolism in highly trained athletes

It is found that the activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in blood of youth athletes (both male and female) at rest is lower than in blood of untrained subjects (control). This decrease in female athletes was nearly twice as pronounced as that in male athletes. Veloergometric load significantly increased the level of LGH; however, this increase was somewhat greater in male athletes. Coupled changes in the activity of LDH and in the development of the muscle component of the soma may serve as an indicator of the training status of athletes and their ability to tolerate speed and power muscular load.     

Weight-Loss Strategies of Young Adults: Exercise Versus Dieting

This cross-sectional survey study examined weight control practices of 2,092 male and 1,748 female freshman students aged 18 years. For women, the desire for weight loss was observed at all levels of body weight. Most women (79%) wished to weigh less than their current weight, and 23% were following a restricted-calorie diet. In contrast, more men wished to gain (46%) rather than lose weight (32%), and only 3% were dieting at the time of the study. A comparison of weight control practices of men and women who wished to lose weight showed that women restricted calories far more frequently than did men. In contrast, although men were more likely to use exercise for weight control than were women, the differences between the sexes were small. A combined analysis of dieting and exercise behaviors showed that while men relied almost exclusively on intensive exercise as opposed to dieting, women employed exercise as well as dieting for the purpose of weight control.     

Racial/Ethnic and Gender Differences in Concern with Weight and in Bulimic Behaviors Among Adolescents

FIELD, ALISON E, GRAHAM A COLDITZ, KAREN E PETERSON. Racial/ethnic and gender differences in concern with weight and in bulimic behaviors among adolescents. This study examined cross-sectional gender and racial/ethnic differences in bulimic behaviors among adolescents. Subjects were 704 male and 621 female students at a large urban public high school in the Northeast. Approximately 61% of the girls and 43% of the boys reported trying to lose weight or maintain their current weight; 2.0% of the students reported using laxatives or vomiting to control their weight. The use of these behaviors to control weight was only slightly more common among girls than boys (2.7% vs. 1.4%,p=0.1). Although more black than white girls used laxatives or vomiting to control weight (odds ratio [OR]=11.9, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.5–95.3), there were no racial/ethnic differences in these behaviors among boys. However, Hispanic boys were twice as likely as white boys to binge eat at least monthly (OR=2.0, 95% CI 1.1–3.6). Our results suggest that bulimic behaviors affect male and female adolescents from a variety of racial/ethnic backgrounds. In addition, in contrast to the large gender differences in the prevalence of dieting and binge eating, more modest differences were documented in the prevalence of using vomiting and laxatives to control weight.     

The Relationship between Regular Sports Participation and Vigilance in Male and Female Adolescents

The present study investigated the relationship between regular sport participation (soccer) and vigilance performance. Two groups of male and female adolescents differentiated in terms of their sport participation (athletes, n = 39, and non-athletes, n = 36) took part in the study. In one session, participants performed the Leger Multi-stage fitness test to estimate their aerobic fitness level. In the other session, participants completed the Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT) to evaluate their vigilance performance. Perceived arousal prior to the task and motivation toward the task were also measured in the PVT session. The results revealed that athletes had better cardiovascular fitness and showed better performance in the PVT. However, correlation analyses did not show any significant relationship between cardiovascular fitness and performance in the PVT. Athletes showed larger scores in motivation and perceived arousal measures with respect to non-athletes, although, once again, these variables were not correlated with PVT performance. Gender differences were observed only in the Leger test, with males showing greater fitness level than females. The major outcome of this research points to a positive relationship between regular sport participation and vigilance during adolescence. This relationship did not seem to be influenced by gender, perceived arousal, motivation toward the task or cardiovascular fitness. We discuss our results in terms of the different hypotheses put forward in the literature to explain the relationship between physical activity and cognitive functioning.     

Gastric secretion in seven- to thirty-two-year-old wrestlers

The formation and adaptation of gastric secretion was studied in the sports ontogeny of various wrestlers and of athletes retired from sport. Gastric secretion proved to depend strongly on the level of the wrestlers’ motor activity, which determined changes in the reactivity of the digestive apparatus and intensity of proteolysis (hypo- and hyperfunctions). Changes in the secretory gastric activity of wrestlers depended on their age and the duration and intensity of their physical exercises and were correlated with the body weight of the athletes.     

Balance index score as a predictive factor for lower sports results or anterior cruciate ligament knee injuries in Croatian female athletes--preliminary study

Female athletes participating in high-risk sports suffer anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) knee injury at a 4- to 6-fold greater rate than do male athletes. ACL injuries result either from contact mechanisms or from certain unexplained non-contact mechanisms occurring during daily professional sports activities. The occurrence of non-contact injuries points to the existence of certain factors intrinsic to the knee that can lead to ACL rupture. When knee joint movement overcomes the static and the dynamic constraint systems, non-contact ACL injury may occur. Certain recent results suggest that balance and neuromuscular control play a central role in knee joint stability, protection and prevention of ACL injuries. The purpose of this study is to evaluate balance neuromuscular skills in healthy Croatian female athletes by measuring their balance index score, as well as to estimate a possible correlation between their balance index score and balance effectiveness. This study is conducted in an effort to reduce the risk of future injuries and thus prevent female athletes from withdrawing from sports prematurely. We analysed fifty-two female athletes in the high-risk sports of handball and volleyball, measuring for their static and dynamic balance index scores, using the Sport KAT 2000 testing system. This method may be used to monitor balance and coordination systems and may help to develop simpler measurements of neuromuscular control, which can be used to estimate risk predictors in athletes who withdraw from sports due to lower sports results or ruptured anterior cruciate ligament and to direct female athletes to more effective, targeted preventive interventions. The tested Croatian female athletes with lower sports results and ACL knee injury incurred after the testing were found to have a higher balance index score compared to healthy athletes. We therefore suggest that a higher balance index score can be used as an effective risk predictor for lower sports results and lesser sports motivation, anterior cruciate ligament injury and the ultimate decision to withdraw from active participation in sports. If the balance testing results prove to be effective in predicting the occurrence of ligament injuries during future sports activities, we suggest that prophylactic training programs be introduced during athlete training, since the prevention of an initial injury will be more effective than prevention of injury recurrence.