Speciation and the evolution of behaviour in prosimians

A mechanism is suggested, based on a biphasic approach-withdrawal theory proposed byT. C. Schneirla, to account for how behaviours may be selected by environmental forces for transmission over generations. The basic postulates of Schneirla's theory are presented followed by an examination of some aspects of lorisid behaviour in the light of this theory.     

An apparatus for the continuous culture of bacteria at constant generation times

Summary An apparatus for continuous culture of bacteria at constant generation times is described, analogous toNovick andSzilard's “chemostat” and the apparatus ofMonod. Detailed instructions for the use of the apparatus are given and a method for the determination of the vessel constant is described. The theory and the interesting possibilities of the apparatus for a number of fundamental problems in bacteriology are shortly discussed.     

On the nature of HNO2 and UV damages in T-even bacteriophages

Summary The interpretation of experiments with HNO₂-inactivated phage T4 published byHarm (1960) and of similar experiments with UV inactivated phages T2 and T4 (Dulbecco 1952,Harm 1956, andEpstein 1958) is discussed. Two alternative theories are used as possible interpretations of the HNO₂ experiments: (1) The injection damage theory holding that a fractionJ of the damages caused in a phage by HNO₂ treatment prevent participation of the phage in the infectious process. (2) The finite damage theory holding that the damages produced by HNO₂ in the genetic material are much larger (have a greater target length) than UV damages, and otherways applying to HNO₂ damages the same theory earlier applied to UV-damages (Barricelli 1956 and 1960).Experimental methods to decide between the two theories are indicated. In the conclusion it is shown that the injection damage theory is not valid for UV damages in T2 and T4. In this case the theory is ruled out by the results ofDulbecco's (1952),Harm's (1956) andEpstein's (1958) MR experiments.With 2 Figures in the TextThis investigation was supported by research grant RG-6980 from the Division of General Medical Sciences and C-4437 from the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health, U.S.A. Public Health Service.     

An irreversible thermodynamics treatment of electrodiffusion in uniform membranes

Summary In a previous paper (Ciani andGliozzi, 1966) we presented the integration of the phenomenological equations of flow of irreversible thermodynamics, describing the movement of water and two monovalent counterions across a uniform permselective membrane. The present paper generalizes those results, by introducing less restrictive assumptions and by allowing for the case that two counterions of different valences or one counterion and one coion are present in the membrane.The analytical expressions for the voltage-current relationship, the fluxes of the mobile species and the profiles of the concentrations are derived. The membrane resistance and the rectification properties of the system are analyzed in detail.The expression of the flux of water is found to allow for negative electroosmosis.Some comparative remarks between the present treatment and the earlier theory bySchlögl andSchödel (Schlögl andSchödel, 1955) are presented in the last section of the paper.     

True handedness in the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus)?

Hand use for 8 activities was studied in 20 captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). The purpose of the study was to discover if hand preferences existed across tasks and across subjects, and, if so, whether these followed the patterns of preference inMacNeilage et al.'s (1987) “postural origins” theory of the evolution of hand preference and hemispheric specialization in primates. This theory suggests that, for haplorines, the right hand is used preferentially for manipulative acts while the left hand is used preferentially for visually guided acts. The study showed statistically significant right hand preferences for six of the seven actions which produced sufficient data to be tested. The strength and consistency of this preference makes this study the first to suggest true handedness in a non-human primate species. Deviations from the pattern were seen in scratching and other actions when performed in a vertical posture, but these deviations took the form of a weakening of the right hand preference rather than a reversal. The findings of the study may be seen as supportingMacNeilage et al.'s (1987) theoryonly if the actions studied are all considered to be manipulative, which can be argued to be the case, though some of the actions were also visually guided.     

Measurement of the potential across the sieve plates in Vitis vinifera

Summary The electrical potential difference across the sieve plates in the primary phloem of Vitis vinifera was measured by inserting micro-electrodes into the sieve-tubes. The values obtained ranged from 4–48 mV. The potential across the transverse walls of the phloem fibres was also determined and found to range from I–II mV. These results are discussed in relation to the theory of translocation based on electro-osmosis put forward independently by Fensom and Spanner.     

Über das optische Auflösungsvermögen der Facettenaugen von Limulus

Summary The resolving power of the human eye and the apposition eye in insects is discussed on the basis of Fraunhofer's diffraction theory. It is then shown that diffraction does not play an important role in the Limulus facet eye. In spite of this the visual fields of neighboured ommatidia overlap strongly as Waterman has shown. A mathematical relation which describes the process of imaging the optical surroundings onto the generator potentials of the excentric cells of the receptors is presented. This relation takes into account the overlap of the visual fields and the logarithmic relation between light intensity and generator potential (MacNichol, Fuortes). On the basis of Hartline and Ratliff's reports on lateral inhibition in the Limulus eye it is shown that this process corrects the overlap and therefore increases the resolving power of the eye. The functional mechanism of lateral inhibition is in principle able to create an image of the optical surroundings in the optic nerve. It therefore can compensate for the dioptric apparatus in front of the receptor mosaic. The correction process in the Limulus eye is studied quantitatively and other cases of principle interest are investigated by means of an analog computer. The results are discussed and other inhibitory processes in the visual and auditory system etc. are mentioned.     

On the invagination of the gastrula

Conclusions An experimental study of the problem of gastrulation has yielded evidence which shows that the present prevailing theories are inadequate to account for the facts.Especial attention has been given to the theory ofAssheton, according to which the geometrical relation of nuclei to the cells in the blastula is of fundamental importance to invagination. It was found that an excess of calcium added to the sea water in which the cultures ofS. purpuratus were raised caused a displacement of the nuclei to the inside so that they appeared at the edge of the blastocoele. Lithium larvae on the other hand showed the nuclei disposed toward the periphery in the cells of the blastulae. Since, however, nuclear position did not uniformly correspond to invagination or evagination as the case happened to be, the view that the position of the nuclei determines invagination had to be given up.A modification ofAssheton's view is suggested, namely, that invagination is caused by cell bridges asymmetrically placed. The eccentric attraction between the cells at the vegetal pole therefore presumably depends upon physical structures and not, asAssheton supposed, upon an attraction between the nuclei.I am glad to express my thanks to MissWinnefred Bradway and Mr. S. H.Whong for their assistance in preparing sections and making sketches, and to Mr.Henry Hill of the Yaquina Head Light House for his kindness and hospitality which made part of the work possible.Aided by a grant from the research fund of the University of Oregon.     

Zum Problem der genetischen Rekombination von Bakteriophagen

Summary The mating theory ofVisconti andDelbrück describes quantitatively the recombination kinetics in phage. One special assumption of this theory is thepairwise mating of complete parental structures randomly chosen from the pool, which can lead to the production of a new recombinant particle. On the other hand it seems possible to assume a mechanism, by which the number of templates involved in the formation of a new replica is not restricted to two particles. The hypothesis of complete cooperation presented here suggests the participation ofN+1 random templates in the formation of a new replica carryingN recombination sites. Such a mechanism may be interpreted in different ways, e.g. by a partical replica model or by a partical pairing, which connects more than two parental structures. A differential equation is given, describing this assumption and leading to formulas very similar to those of the mating theory.

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Mit 3 Textabbildungen     

Protein loop compaction and the origin of the effect of arginine and glutamic acid mixtures on solubility,stability and transient oligomerization of proteins

Addition of a 50 mM mixture of l-arginine and l-glutamic acid (RE) is extensively used to improve protein solubility and stability, although the origin of the effect is not well understood. We present Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) results showing that RE induces protein compaction by collapsing flexible loops on the protein core. This is suggested to be a general mechanism preventing aggregation and improving resistance to proteases and to originate from the polyelectrolyte nature of RE. Molecular polyelectrolyte mixtures are expected to display long range correlation effects according to dressed interaction site theory. We hypothesize that perturbation of the RE solution by dissolved proteins is proportional to the volume occupied by the protein. As a consequence, loop collapse, minimizing the effective protein volume, is favored in the presence of RE.     

On the action of sulfanilamide

Summary A. According toMellon,Locke andShinn, the bacteriostatic action of sulfanilamide is due to the inactivation of (bacterial) catalase and the resulting accumulation of hydrogen peroxide. The probability of this theory is discussed. B. Catalase activity was studied by means ofPhotobacterium Fischeri, as an oxygen indicator. By adding hydrogen peroxide to the tested cultures of bacteria it has been demonstrated, that: I.Bacterium coli, Photobacterium Fischeri andStreptococcus haemolyticus (strainAronson) contain catalase. II. Sulfanilamide does not inactivate the catalase in blood. III. Sulfanilamide does not inactivate bacterial catalase nor does it affect the production of catalase in the growing culture containing the drug. So we have to conclude that the assumption of catalase inactivation to be the essential factor in sulfanilamide action on bacteria will not lead us to the solution of the problem. First communication:L. K. Wolff andH. W. Julius, Ann. de l'Inst. Pasteur62, 616, 1939.     

Karyotype study ofDurio zibethinus L

Durio zibethinus hasn=14 chromosomes with median, submedian and almost subterminal primary constrictions, and four chromosomes with secondary constrictions. On basis of the karyotype, the species may not be considered a primitive one, as suggested byCorner in his theory on the origin of modern trees.     

Die Abhängigkeit der Reizzeiten bei der elektrischen Erregung von der Länge der erregten Gebilde

Zusammenfassung An Vorticellen lassen sich zwei sehr verschiedene Chronaxien nachweisen, kurze, die man aus gewissen Gründen dem Köpfchen, und lange, die man dem Stiel zuordnen kann. Die Chronaxien verhalten sich zueinander ungefähr wie die Quadrate der Längen von Köpfchen und Stiel.Bei Internodialzellen vonNitella verkürzt sich beim Verkürzen der Zellänge durch Abbinden die Chronaxie ungefähr proportional dem Quadrat der Zellänge, wenn sich die Kathode immer an demselben intakten Zellende befindet.Diese Befunde stützen die Ansicht vonUmrath (1925, 1928, 1942, 1959), daß die Reizzeiten bei der elektrischen Erregung den Quadraten der Zellängen proportional sind, wobei sich aber für die in der Theorie der elektrischen Erregung vonNernst (1899, 1908) als Diffusionskoeffizient eingeführte Größek ein Zahlenwert ergibt, der für einen Diffusionskoeffizienten zu groß, beiNitella viel zu groß ist. Man kann nachUmrath (1928, 1942, 1959)k als Beweglichkeit elektrisch polarer, grenzflächenaktiver Molekeln im Plasmalemma interpretieren und so die mathematischen Formulierungen der Theorie vonNernst (1899, 1908) und vonHill (1910) übernehmen.Beim Vergleich verschiedener Organismen mit sehr verschiedenen Zellängen zeigt sich eine Zunahme der Chronaxien mit zunehmenden Zellängen, aber nicht proportional den Quadraten der Zellängen, so daßk mit zunehmender Zellänge zunimmt. Das wird vonUmrath (1959) dahingehend gedeutet, daß einer hohen Beweglichkeit grenzflächenaktiver Substanzen im Plasmalemma mit zunehmender Zellgröße zunehmender Selektionswert zukommt. Extrem großek-Werte kommen bei den Skelettmuskeln und Nerven der Wirbeltiere vor, bei denen sie auch für eine rasche Erregungsleitung von Bedeutung sein dürften.

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Stimulation-times in electrical excitation as depending from the length of the exited units

Summary In Vorticellae two very different chronaxies can be demonstrated, short ones, which for certain grounds can be ascribed to the head, and long ones, which can be ascribed to the stalk. The chronaxies are approximately in the same proportion as the squares of the lengths of the head and stalk.If internodial cells ofNitella are shortened by tying them off, the chronaxie is shortened about as the square of the cell-length, provided that the cathod is always situated on the same, intact end of the cell.These findings support the view ofUmrath (1925, 1928, 1942, 1959), that in electrical excitation necessary times of current flow are proportional to the squares of the cell-lengths. But if one calculates the numerical value of the diffusion-coefficientk, introduced byNernst (1899, 1908) in the equations of his theory of electrical excitation, it is too great, inNitella much too great, for a diffusion-coefficient. AfterUmrath (1928, 1942, 1959) one may interpretek as the mobility of electrically polar, surfaceactive molecules in the plasmalemma and in this way take over the mathematical formulations of the theory ofNernst (1899, 1908) andHill (1910).In comparing different organisms with widely different cell-lengths it results an augmentation of the chronaxie with increasing cell-length, but not proportional to the square of the cell-length, so thatk increases with increasing cell-length.Umrath (1959) explains this by assuming, that with increasing cell-length the selection-value of a high mobility of surfaceactive substances in the plasmalemma is increased. Extremely great values ofk are encountered with skeletal muscles and nerves of vertebrates, where they may be of importance for fast conduction of excitation.

     

A photometer for the extinctiometric determination of the density of suspensions of microorganisms with minimal deviation from the law of Beer-Lambert

Summary The theory and construction of a photometer for the extinctiometric determination of the density of suspensions of bacteria are given. The application of the principle of directional selectivity and the use of sodium light leads to a satisfactory accuracy in the determination of the density of suspensions of bacteria. The results are in conformity with the law ofBeer-Lambert. The advantages of the proposed method are discussed.     

The ultrastructure of the test of the tadpole larva ofCiona intestinalis

Summary The test of the tadpole larva ofCiona intestinalis consists of an amorphous background substance in which are long 4–7 nm fibrils. There is a narrow outer dense region of the test where both the background material and the test fibrils are more concentrated and orientated. Fibrils of similar dimensions are found in the epithelial cells below the test, and also in cells associated with the outside surface of the test. No such fibrils are found in the cells located within the test substance. There are some regions where the external cell membrane of the epithelial cells is indistinct and in these regions the fibrils of the test are continuous with the fibrils within the epithelial cells. No large or small vesicles opening from the epithelial cells into the test have been seen.This evidence has been interpreted as support for the tunicization theory of test formation. It is suggested that the cells within the test are the source of the polyphenols that are necessary for quinone tanning that gives rigidity to the test.The fibril-containing cells outside the test probably add fibres to the cuticular region of the test.I wish to thank ProfessorJ. Z. Young, F.R.S. for much advice and encouragment, also Dr.R. Bellairs for the use of electron microscope facilities and Mr.R. Moss and Mrs.J. Hamilton for skillful technical assistance.     

Some aspects of the Feulgen reaction in situ

Summary Cytological observations combined with studies on absorption spectra of Feulgen stained normal and lipid — extractet HeLa and ehrlich-Lettré mouse ascites cells were performed after fixation of the cells as well in neutral formaldehyde as in Serra fixative. The effects of formaldehyde treatment of the stained cells to substitute all the free amino groups of DNA bond pararosaniline molecules, were also studied. The results obtained by using DNA samples containing 2% protein and relatively free from protein, led to the conclusion that after acid hydrolysis for a short period purines in DNA become splitted and these released aldehydes react with one or two amino groups of pararosaniline, a triphenylmethane dye (according to the arrangement of purines and pyrimidines in the helices). Some protein molecules also take part in the reaction and substitute some of the free amino groups of DNA bound pararosaniline. Peulgen stained cells fixed in Serra fixative show an absorption maximum at 546–550 m. Under appropriate conditions, as in cells fixed in formaldehyde, other substances e.g. phospholipids and lipoproteins interfere with the reaction by substituting most of the free amino groups of DNA bound pararosaniline molecules. It has been argued that in histochemical reactions monosubstituted pararosaniline molecules should be coloured and further substitution of free amino groups of pararosaniline, bound in DNA helices, does not change the intensity of the colour, but gives a shift in the wavelength of the absorption spectra.It has been suggested that the differential response of the nucleoli to the Feulgen-reaction, depending on whether the cells were fixed in formaldehyde or in Serra fixative, may be due to the formation of a protecting shield around the finely distributed intranucleolar chromatin strands, when formaldehyde is being used. After this fixation lipoproteins and other lipids, present in a relatively high percentage and closely associated with the intranucleolar chromatin strands, are especially well preserved.Evidences have been put foreward in support of the amino alkylsulfonic acid theory of Rumpf (1935) and Hörmann et al. (1958) whereas the amino sulfinic acid theory to explain the Schiffs reaction (Wieland and Scheuing, 1921) was shown not to be in agreement with our results.On leave from the Department of Botany, Calcutta University, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Calcutta-19, India; on a fellowship from the German Academic Exchange Service.     

A note on the characteristics of parental T 4 DNA transmitted to progeny phages

Summary Several hypotheses concerning the fate of the parental DNA of phage T4 are discussed as possible interpretations of experimental data presently available. Particularly the experimental implications of the breakage-rejoining hypothesis, and the possibility that the joints between parental and progeny DNA may or may not be reversible during intracellular growth, are taken into consideration. Some of the crucial experiments, byLevinthal, byKahn, byStent, Sato andJerne, byKozinski andKozinski, and byTomizawa andAnraku, are briefly described. The results of these experiments make it possible to rule out most of the hypotheses considered. Only the following hypothesis is found to be consistent with present experimental data: A portion (roughly one half) of the parental DNA is transmitted to the progeny in the form of large segments (average size 40% or more of a single T4-DNA strand) which are reversibly joined to newly formed DNA and usually remain intact if transmitted again to later generations. Another protion of the parental DNA is transmitted in small segments which might be irreversibly joined to newly formed DNA. The joints between parental and progeny DNA are reversible during intracellular growth (Anraku andTom zawa, 1965).This work was supported by research grant GM-12581 from the Division of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health, United States Public Health Service.     

Efflux und Transport von Cl− und Rb+ in Maiswurzeln. Wirkung von Außenkonzentration,Ca++, EDTA und IES

Summary The efflux of ³⁶Cl and ⁸⁶Rb and the fluxes of these ions into the xylem were investigated using the device shown in Fig. 1.Efflux of ³⁶Cl is stimulated by external KCl while transport into the xylem is inhibited. Stimulation of the efflux appears to be stronger than inhibition of the transport.The stimulation of the efflux of ³⁶Cl was also observed with roots of intact seedlings.Assuming that the mode of transfer of Cl^– into the xylem (flux 3, Fig. 8) is diffusion exhibiting a linear isotherm (Luttge and Laties, 1966), these results suggest that the primary action of external salts is on the efflux across the plasma-lemma (Weigl, 1967, 1968). We were unable, however, to find a linear relationship between concentration and rate of chloride transport to the shoots of intact seedlings.With respect to the mode of ion transfer to the xylem (Weigl and Lüttge, 1965; Luttge and Laties, 1966) we have to be aware of the following facts:A linear isotherm cannot be taken to signify diffusive permeation (Torii and Laties, 1966; Luttge and Laties, 1966). If the Michaelis constant is extremely high relative to the ion concentration, the relationship between the ion concentration and the rate of a metabolic or mediated transport approaches linearity.The isotherm of the transport into the xylem may primarily reflect the difference of two large fluxes (4 and 5; Fig. 8).The transport data of Luttge and Laties (1966) need not be presented as a straight line (Fig. 6).If at high external ion concentrations the ratio of the ion concentration in the exudation sap to the external ion concentration approaches unity, diffusive permeation into the stele is still not proved to be the mode of migration, since at high stelar ion concentration flux 6 tends to become equal to flux 3.Considerations on radial ion transfer into the xylem depend on contemporary knowledge of the location of transport systems. Cl^–-uptake into root tips (2 mm) from solutions of 1–10 mM KCl did not exhibit a linear isotherm. These results are unpublished since the discrepancy to the results of Torii and Laties (1966) may be due to a higher content of vacuoles in our root tips. We feel it unlikely, however, that a linear isotherm of Cl^–-uptake into root tips is adequately explained by assuming that it is due to a lack of vacuoles while the sensibility to inhibitors is assumed to be due to the presence of vacuoles in root tips.Transport of Cl^– into the xylem is susceptible to inhibitors of oxydative phosphorylation, suggesting that this process, even at high external ion concentrations, is dependent on metabolic energy in contrast to the passive efflux from the cortical cells across the plasmalemma into the environment of the root. The precise location of the metabolic step(s) on the pathway of ions from the environment of the root to the xylem is unknown.The observed effects of Ca⁺⁺, EDTA and IAA may be considered in relation to the theory that auxin exerts its influence on growth by altering the diffusion potential across cell membranes (Brauner and Diemer, 1967). Growth is susceptible to the effect of Ca⁺⁺ and EDTA (Adamson, 1962; Setterfield, 1963; Thimann, 1963). Nevertheless, since IAA exerts no influence on ion fluxes in corn roots, it is not clear whether IAA really exerts its influence on growth by altering the diffusion potential across plant cell membranes. We might be dealing with occasional effects of secondary importance.     

Biochemical dehydrogenations of saccharides

Fermentation of nutrient media by a selected strain ofAcetomonas oxydans with a continuous pH control gaved-lyxo-5-hexulosonate in the form of a calcium or potassium salt with a yield equal to 95% of theory. The media contained up to 20 gd-mannose per 100 ml and a small amount of a readily assimilated monosaccharide.