线粒体自噬影响胰岛素抵抗的作用及机制

胰岛素抵抗（IR）是诱发许多代谢疾病的关键因素,包括代谢综合征、非酒精性脂肪性肝病、动脉粥样硬化和2型糖尿病（T2DM）。随着相关代谢疾病日益增多,寻找新的治疗靶点迫在眉睫。线粒体自噬是一种选择性自噬,其通过清除受损和功能失调的线粒体以维持正常线粒体功能和能量代谢。研究发现,线粒体自噬在代谢疾病中有积极作用,线粒体自噬受到各种信号通路与信号分子调控而改善代谢疾病,如AMPK/ULK1、PINK1/Parkin信号通路以及BNIP3/Nix和FUNDC1等信号分子。本文阐述了线粒体自噬在胰岛素抵抗中的作用及调控机制,综述了近年的相关研究进展。     

运动调控自噬溶酶体通路改善阿尔茨海默病的机制

阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer’s disease, AD）是一种常见的神经退行性疾病。自噬溶酶体功能异常阻碍了细胞对神经毒性物质的降解，是导致AD发生的关键因素。运动作为一种非药物治疗手段，可以通过激活PI3K/Akt、AMPK等相关信号通路上调自噬活性，并通过促进TFEB的核易位增强自噬溶酶体功能，提高对异常聚集蛋白和受损伤细胞器的降解，保护神经元，改善AD患者的认知功能障碍。本文阐述了自噬溶酶体功能障碍在AD发生发展中的作用，以及运动调控自噬溶酶体通路改善AD作用机制，旨在为AD的预防和治疗提供新策略。     

运动：一种双向调控疾病中自噬异常的手段

自噬(autophagy)是一种进化上高度保守的细胞降解过程,它可以完成细胞成分的基本周转,并提供能量和大分子前体以维持生物体的代谢与平衡。近年研究发现,细胞自噬水平的失调与多种疾病的发生和发展密切相关,这一点已在多种疾病动物模型中得到验证。过高或不足的自噬水平都可能导致疾病。运动作为一种与能量代谢及细胞内环境变化密切相关的活动,与细胞自噬过程之间有密切关联。而运动对自噬的调节是一个双向的过程。对于自噬不足或过度引起的疾病,运动可以恢复其正常的自噬功能,并起到改善、延缓疾病进展的作用。当前,对于运动调控疾病背景下异常的自噬水平的理论及机制尚缺乏充分的阐述。深入探索和讨论运动对疾病中异常自噬水平的调节,将有助于我们拓展视野,为更全面地理解运动在预防和改善各种与自噬相关的疾病过程中的潜在机制和作用。因此,本综述分析概括总结了运动改善疾病中过高或不足的自噬水平及运动对疾病的缓解效果,梳理了运动与自噬的双向调控关系,并进一步提炼归纳了运动调控异常自噬水平所涉及的相关信号通路。这为探究运动促进健康的机制及理清运动调控自噬之间的关系提供理论依据与参考。     

细胞自噬发生的表观遗传调节

细胞自噬是一种进化上保守的, 通过吞噬降解自身大分子物质或细胞器来维持细胞生存的活动。自噬与多种生命活动息息相关, 其功能的紊乱往往会导致肿瘤发生、神经退行性疾病、微生物感染等疾病。研究表明, 表观遗传修饰可以调控细胞自噬的发生, 并在细胞自噬的生物学功能调节过程中发挥重要作用, 但具体调控机制尚需进一步探究。文章综述了细胞自噬发生过程中存在的表观遗传效应, 包括组蛋白乙酰化对细胞自噬激活或抑制的负反馈调控, 通过DNA甲基化调节自噬相关基因活性来影响细胞自噬的发生, miRNA通过靶向调节自噬相关基因表达来影响组蛋白修饰, 从而调控细胞自噬的发生及作用过程等, 旨在为人们进一步研究细胞自噬发生过程中的表观遗传修饰及其机制提供信息依据。     

线粒体自噬的研究进展

线粒体自噬（mitophagy）是指细胞通过自噬的机制选择性地清除线粒体的过程。选择性清除受损伤或功能不完整的线粒体对于整个线粒体网络的功能完整性和细胞生存来说十分关键。线粒体自噬的异常和很多疾病密切相关,因此对于线粒体自噬的具体分子机制以及生理意义研究有很重要的生物学意义。线粒体自噬的研究是目前生物学领域的研究热点,该文主要综述了近年来在线粒体自噬领域取得的研究进展,旨在为相关领域的研究提供参考。     

细胞自噬及其调控机制的研究进展

自噬作为细胞一种自我保护机制,广泛存在于真核细胞中。自噬的过程依赖于正常的溶酶体功能,与机体多种疾病密切相关。近年来,细胞自噬越来越受到关注,自噬的发生机制、自噬与疾病发生的关系对预防与治疗多种人类重大疾病具有重要意义。本文旨在概括目前自噬的研究进展,重点介绍细胞自噬的发生及其调控机制。     

自噬调控白色脂肪细胞棕色化的研究进展

脂肪细胞自噬(autophagy)以脂自噬和线粒体自噬的形式存在。细胞通过脂自噬调节脂质代谢,降低脂毒性并为线粒体活动提供原料;通过线粒体自噬控制细胞数量和质量影响细胞的功能。白色脂肪细胞中脂质过度积累及自噬调控异常引起的炎症,可导致肥胖症及其相关代谢疾病的发生。通过白色脂肪细胞棕色化将储能的白色脂肪细胞转变成产热的米色脂肪细胞是防治肥胖症的策略之一,而白色脂肪细胞棕色化过程需要自噬的调控。就目前有关两种形式的自噬在白色脂肪细胞棕色化中的作用、相关信号通路及自噬调节炎症的研究进展做一综述评论,以期为抗肥胖及其相关代谢性疾病研究提供参考依据。     

泛素信号途径、自噬受体与细胞选择性自噬

蛋白质泛素化是真核生物细胞内蛋白质合成后最重要和最普遍的修饰方式之一。发生在蛋白质底物上的泛素化,由于其泛素化方式及形成泛素链的连接形式的多样性,又统称为泛素信号途径。研究表明,泛素信号途径对蛋白质的调节作用分为降解相关和非相关的两种。细胞内蛋白质的降解主要通过泛素-蛋白酶体或溶酶体-自噬途径来完成。一般认为,通过泛素-蛋白酶体降解的蛋白质具有很强的选择性,而通过溶酶体-自噬途径降解的蛋白质一般选择性较差。然而,近年来,细胞自噬受体如p62等的发现则表明细胞自噬同样具有很强的选择性,这一类由细胞自噬受体介导的细胞自噬被称为细胞选择性自噬(Selective autophagy)。蛋白质泛素化及降解调控几乎所有类型的细胞活动;与之对应的是,蛋白质泛素化及降解异常与包括肿瘤在内的多种人类疾病的发生发展密切相关。本文综述了泛素信号途径调控蛋白质通过蛋白酶体或自噬途径降解的基本过程和部分最新进展,并结合本实验室的研究成果介绍泛素化修饰细胞自噬受体调控细胞选择性自噬的新机制。     

MERS冠状病毒3C样蛋白酶是一种新的细胞自噬诱导蛋白

冠状病毒（Coronavirus, CoV）3C样蛋白酶（3CLpro）在冠状病毒复制过程中起重要作用,是一种重要的潜在抗病毒药物候选靶标。细胞自噬是宿主重要抗病毒防御机制之一,但目前冠状病毒诱导细胞自噬及其机制还不很清楚。本研究以人类新发高致病性冠状病毒 --中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒（MERS CoV）为研究对象,探讨人类冠状病毒感染与细胞自噬的关系。通过免疫荧光法检测发现,MERS 3CLpro引起细胞内eGFP-LC3B绿色荧光点状聚集,同时MERS 3CLpro诱导自噬标志蛋白微管相关蛋白1-轻链3基 (LC3-II)表达增多,表明MERS 3CLpro可激活细胞自噬。进一步研究发现,MERS 3CLpro诱导细胞自噬体形成而阻断或抑制自噬溶酶体形成,即MERS 3CLpro诱导不完全细胞自噬效应,而且MERS 3CLpro诱导细胞自噬具有时间依赖性且不依赖于其蛋白酶催化活性。此外发现SARS CoV和NL63 CoV等其它人类冠状病毒3CLpro也具有诱导细胞自噬效应,表明3CLpro诱导细胞自噬可能是人类冠状病毒所具有的一种普遍生物学特性。本研究首次发现冠状病毒蛋白酶3CLpro能诱导宿主细胞自噬,是一种新型冠状病毒来源的宿主细胞自噬诱导蛋白,这一发现拓展了对人类冠状病毒蛋白酶功能的新认识,为研究冠状病毒与宿主抗病毒天然免疫以及以病毒蛋白酶为靶标的抗病毒药物研究提供了理论基础。     

自噬与NLRP3炎症小体激活间的相互作用

自噬作为真核生物细胞遭遇各种应激压力时发生的一种基本应答方式,参与细胞的多种生命活动,使细胞在各种应激条件下维持一种动态平衡状态。NOD样受体家族核苷酸结合寡聚化结构域样受体3（NOD-like receptor family,pyrin domain containing 3,NLRP3）炎症小体,是生物体内防御病原微生物的固有免疫防御系统的重要组成部分。NLRP3炎症小体通过激活胱天蛋白酶-1（caspase-1）,从而促进白细胞介素-1β（interleukin-1,IL-1β）和白细胞介素-18（interleukin-18,IL-18）等促炎细胞因子的成熟和分泌,继而介导炎症的发生。众多研究表明,自噬能够负向或正向调控NLRP3炎症小体的激活。同时,NLRP3炎症小体也会逆向影响自噬的作用。本文对自噬包括选择性自噬与NLRP3炎症小体激活的相互作用,以及通过激活自噬抑制NLRP3炎症小体,从而在炎症相关疾病治疗中的应用进行综述。     

Why just eat in,when you can also eat out?

The current working definition of autophagy is the following: all processes in which intracellular material is degraded within the lysosome/vacuole and where the macromolecular constituents are recycled. There are several ways to classify the different types of autophagy. For example, we can separate autophagy into two primary types, based on the initial site of cargo sequestration. In particular, during microautophagy and chaperone-mediated autophagy, uptake occurs directly at the limiting membrane of the lysosome or vacuole. In contrast, macroautophagy—whether selective or nonselective—and endosomal microautophagy involve sequestration within an autophagosome or an omegasome, or late endosomes/multivesicular bodies, respectively; the key point being that in these types of autophagy the initial sequestration event does not occur at the limiting membrane of the degradative organelle. In any case, the cargo is ultimately delivered into the lysosome or vacuole lumen for subsequent degradation. Thus, I think most autophagy researchers view the degradative organelle as the ultimate destination of the pathway. Indeed, this fits with the general concept that organelles allow reactions to be compartmentalized. With regard to the lysosome or vacuole, this also confers a level of safety by keeping the lytic contents away from the remainder of the cell. If we are willing to slightly modify our definition of autophagy, with a focus on “degradation of a cell’s own components through the lysosomal/vacuolar machinery,” we can include a newly documented process, programmed nuclear destruction (PND).     

AMDE-1 Is a Dual Function Chemical for Autophagy Activation and Inhibition

Autophagy is the process by which cytosolic components and organelles are delivered to the lysosome for degradation. Autophagy plays important roles in cellular homeostasis and disease pathogenesis. Small chemical molecules that can modulate autophagy activity may have pharmacological value for treating diseases. Using a GFP-LC3-based high content screening assay we identified a novel chemical that is able to modulate autophagy at both initiation and degradation levels. This molecule, termed as Autophagy Modulator with Dual Effect-1 (AMDE-1), triggered autophagy in an Atg5-dependent manner, recruiting Atg16 to the pre-autophagosomal site and causing LC3 lipidation. AMDE-1 induced autophagy through the activation of AMPK, which inactivated mTORC1 and activated ULK1. AMDE-1did not affect MAP kinase, JNK or oxidative stress signaling for autophagy induction. Surprisingly, treatment with AMDE-1 resulted in impairment in autophagic flux and inhibition of long-lived protein degradation. This inhibition was correlated with a reduction in lysosomal degradation capacity but not with autophagosome-lysosome fusion. Further analysis indicated that AMDE-1 caused a reduction in lysosome acidity and lysosomal proteolytic activity, suggesting that it suppressed general lysosome function. AMDE-1 thus also impaired endocytosis-mediated EGF receptor degradation. The dual effects of AMDE-1 on autophagy induction and lysosomal degradation suggested that its net effect would likely lead to autophagic stress and lysosome dysfunction, and therefore cell death. Indeed, AMDE-1 triggered necroptosis and was preferentially cytotoxic to cancer cells. In conclusion, this study identified a new class of autophagy modulators with dual effects, which can be explored for potential uses in cancer therapy.     

Connexin 31.1 degradation requires the Clathrin‐mediated autophagy in NSCLC cell H1299

Connexins have relative short half‐lives. Connexin 31.1 (Cx31.1) was newly reported to be down‐regulated in non‐small cell lung cancer cell lines, and displayed tumour‐suppressive properties. However, no reports describing how a cell regulates Cx31.1 level were found. In this study, Cx31.1 was suggested to be degraded through both ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS) and autophagy. Blockage of UPS with MG‐132 increased Cx31.1 level, but could not inhibit the degradation of Cx31.1 completely. In H1299 cells stably expressing Cx31.1, Cx31.1 reduced when autophagy was induced through starvation or Brefeldin A treatment. Knockdown of autophagy‐related protein ATG5 could increase the cellular level of Cx31.1 both under normal growth condition and starvation‐induced autophagy. Colocalization of Cx31.1 and autophagy marker light chain 3 (LC3) was revealed by immunofluorescence analysis. Coimmunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence showed that Cx31.1 might interact with clathrin heavy chain which was newly reported to regulate autophagic lysosome reformation (ALR) and controls lysosome homoeostasis. When clathrin expression was knockdown by siRNA treatment, the level of Cx31.1 increased prominently both under normal growth condition and starvation‐induced autophagy. Under starvation‐induced autophagy, LC3‐II levels were slightly accumulated with siCla. treatment compared to that of siNC, which could be ascribed to that clathrin knockdown impaired the late stage of autophagy, ALR. Taken together, we found autophagy contributed to Cx31.1 degradation, and clathrin might be involved in the autophagy of Cx31.1.     

Non-canonical autophagy: an exception or an underestimated form of autophagy?

Macroautophagy (hereafter called autophagy) is a dynamic and evolutionarily conserved process used to sequester and degrade cytoplasm and entire organelles in a sequestering vesicle with a double membrane, known as the autophagosome, which ultimately fuses with a lysosome to degrade its autophagic cargo. Recently, we have unraveled two distinct forms of autophagy in cancer cells, which we term canonical and non-canonical autophagy. In contrast to classical or canonical autophagy, non-canonical autophagy is a process that does not require the entire set of autophagy-related (Atg) proteins in particular Beclin 1, to form the autophagosome. Non-canonical autophagy is therefore not blocked by the knockdown of Beclin 1 or of its binding partner hVps34. Moreover overexpression of Bcl-2, which is known to block canonical starvation-induced autophagy by binding to Beclin 1, is unable to reverse the non-canonical autophagy triggered by the polyphenol resveratrol in the breast cancer MCF-7 cell line. In MCF-7 cells, at least, non-canonical autophagy is involved in the caspase-independent cell death induced by resveratrol.     

Non-canonical autophagy: An exception or an underestimated form of autophagy?

Macroautophagy (hereafter called autophagy) is a dynamic and evolutionarily conserved process used to sequester and degrade cytoplasm and entire organelles in a sequestering vesicle with a double membrane, known as the autophagosome, which ultimately fuses with a lysosome to degrade its autophagic cargo. Recently, we have unraveled two distinct forms of autophagy in cancer cells, which we term canonical and non-canonical autophagy. In contrast to classical or canonical autophagy, non-canonical autophagy is a process that does not require the entire set of autophagy-related (Atg) proteins in particular Beclin 1, to form the autophagosome. Non-canonical autophagy is therefore not blocked by the knockdown of Beclin 1 or of its binding partner hVps34. Moreover overexpression of Bcl-2, which is known to block canonical starvation-induced autophagy by binding to Beclin 1, is unable to reverse the non-canonical autophagy triggered by the polyphenol resveratrol in the breast cancer MCF-7 cell line. In MCF-7 cells, at least, non-canonical autophagy is involved in the caspase-independent cell death induced by resveratrol.     

细胞自噬在病毒感染与免疫调节中的作用机制

细胞自噬(autophagy)是一种主要由溶酶体介导的降解通路,作为细胞维持内环境稳态的一种保护性机制,不仅通过将长寿命蛋白和衰老细胞器降解为小肽或氨基酸为细胞提供再生资源,而且也可作为防御机制抵抗病原微生物感染和寄生. 自噬缺失与许多疾病如癌症、心血管疾病等的发生关系密切,在机体生理、病理过程中发挥重要作用. 本文拟就细胞自噬与病毒感染、机体免疫的关系加以综述,以期为研究细胞自噬的发生、参与机体免疫、发挥抗病毒感染作用及其分子机制提供参考,也为进一步研究抗病毒治疗的靶标提供新思路.