植物糖基转移酶的结构与机理及糖基化工程的研究进展

糖基转移酶(glycosyltransferases, GTs)广泛存在于各种有机体中,通过糖基化反应参与维持细胞代谢稳态.糖基转移酶能够识别多种受体,催化活化的糖基从供体分子转移到受体分子上,改变受体分子的化学稳定性、水溶性以及受体分子的转运能力和生物活性等,进而有助于提高其生物利用度和生物活性等.许多被糖基化修饰的化合物成为药物分子的重要来源.然而,天然产物中的糖苷类化合物存在含量低、提取难度大和提取产物纯度差等问题.在利用化学合成方法合成糖苷类化合物的过程中,无法实现特定位点的糖基化修饰,同时原料试剂和副产物易对环境造成污染.因此,近年来对糖基转移酶的研究日渐增多.本文简要综述了植物糖基转移酶的结构和生物技术应用的研究进展,为基于植物糖基转移酶结构的糖基化工程和生物活性糖苷化合物的生产提供有用信息.     

植物UDP-糖基转移酶分类、功能以及进化

糖基转移酶(glycosyltransferases,GT;EC 2.4.x.y)是一个多成员的基因家族,根据其底物特异性和催化特异性被分为99个不同的家族。糖基化反应是由GT催化的一些糖类或非糖类生物分子附加糖基形成共价结合的过程。家族1糖基转移酶一般以尿苷二磷酸-糖(UDP-糖)作为糖基供体,催化糖分子转移到受体分子上,从而调节受体分子生物活性,水溶性和稳定性等。在调节植物激素平衡、内外源物质的解毒以及防御反应和次生代谢产物的修饰方面发挥着重要作用。本综述对UDP-糖基转移酶的分类、命名、功能以及进化进行综述,以期为糖基转移酶相关研究提供一定参考。     

常见致病菌糖基转移酶的结构与功能

糖基转移酶(glycosyltransferases,GTs)将糖基从活化的供体转移到糖、脂、蛋白质和核酸等受体,其参与的蛋白质糖基化是最重要的翻译后修饰(post-translational modifications,PTMs)之一。近年来越来越多的研究证明,糖基转移酶与致病菌毒力密切相关,在致病菌的黏附、免疫逃逸和定殖等生物学过程中发挥关键作用。目前,已鉴定的糖基转移酶根据其蛋白质三维结构特征分为3种类型GT-A、GT-B和GT-C,其中常见的是GT-A和GT-B型。在致病菌中发挥黏附功能的糖基转移酶,在结构上属于GT-B或GT-C型,对致病菌表面蛋白质(黏附蛋白、自转运蛋白等)进行糖基化修饰,在致病菌黏附、生物被膜的形成和毒力机制发挥具有重要作用。糖基转移酶不仅参与致病菌黏附这一感染初始过程,其中属于GT-A型的一类致病菌糖基转移酶会进入宿主细胞,通过糖基化宿主蛋白质影响宿主信号传导、蛋白翻译和免疫应答等生物学功能。本文就常见致病菌糖基转移酶的结构及其糖基化在致病机制中的作用进行综述,着重介绍了特异性糖基化高分子量(high-molecular-weight,HMW)黏附蛋白的糖基转移酶、针对富丝氨酸重复蛋白(serine-rich repeat proteins,SRRP)糖基化修饰的糖基转移酶、细菌自转运蛋白庚糖基转移酶(bacterial autotransporter heptosyltransferase,BAHT)家族、N-糖基化蛋白质系统和进入宿主细胞发挥毒力作用的大型梭菌细胞毒素、军团菌(Legionella)葡萄糖基转移酶以及肠杆菌科的效应子NleB。为揭示致病菌中糖基转移酶致病机制的系统性研究提供参考,为未来致病菌的诊断、药物设计研发以及疫苗开发等提供科学依据和思路。     

观赏植物UDP-糖基转移酶研究进展

糖基化修饰在植物的生长发育中扮演着至关重要的角色。糖基转移酶是催化糖苷化产物合成的核心酶,其中,主要以UDP-糖为糖基供体的UGT家族,能够催化次生代谢中的小分子化合物,在调节各种植物次生代谢物的溶解度、稳定性和生物活性等方面具有重要作用,并与植物品质性状、非生物胁迫和生物胁迫的响应等紧密相关,近年来成为备受关注的研究热点。本文对植物中UDP-糖基转移酶进行了全面的综述,涵盖了其结构特点、催化特性、反应类型、功能分类和命名方式等方面。此外,文中还总结了目前观赏植物中UDP-糖基转移酶对激素、萜类化合物和类黄酮化合物等的修饰情况,这些修饰过程进而影响植物的花色、叶色、株型、叶形、挥发性化合物的储存、植物对生物与非生物胁迫的抗性,以及功能性化合物成分的合成等多个方面。通过相关工作文献的回顾与总结,有助于进一步认知糖基转移酶在观赏植物代谢调控中的作用,也为今后的观赏植物种质改良创新和功能性成分的研发提供参考。     

药用植物中UGT家族研究进展

尿苷二磷酸葡萄糖醛酸转移酶(UDP-glucuronosyltransferase,UGT)家族是植物体内最大的糖基转移酶家族。编码合成UGT的基因属于UGT基因家族。UGT催化的糖基化反应广泛地存在于药用植物次生代谢物质的合成过程中。作为代谢通路中的下游修饰,供体分子在UGT的催化下,将糖基连接到受体分子上。这一过程往往会改变终产物的理化及生物学性质,最终影响其实际的利用价值及利用方式。本文综述分析了药用植物UGT家族基因挖掘分析、功能验证和生产应用等方面近年来的研究进展。     

植物糖基转移酶基因的分离方法及其生物学功能研究进展

植物糖基转移酶是植物体内广泛存在的一种进行糖基化反应的转移酶,可以对糖、蛋白质等受体化合物进行糖基化修饰,从而改变其理化性质,对植物的次生代谢和维持体内激素稳态等的生长发育以及对生物及非生物胁迫的响应具有重要的意义。综述了近几年来植物糖基转移酶研究方法及生物学功能的进展情况,并对以后的研究热点进行了展望,旨为更多植物糖基转移酶的鉴定及分离方法提供一定的借鉴,同时希望对该家族基因进一步的功能分析有所帮助。     

植物花青素糖基转移酶研究进展

花青素是植物体内重要的次生代谢物,具有较强的药理活性,如抗氧化、抗癌等,广泛用于营养保健领域。自然条件下,植物体内的花青素以糖苷形式存在,带有各种糖基化修饰,而花青素糖基转移酶是专门负责催化这种糖基化反应的酶,能够把糖基供体转移到花青素不同的位点,形成了不同的花青素种类,从而改变这些分子的特性,影响生物活性和药用功能。本文重点综述了植物花青素糖基转移酶的分类和修饰反应特点,以及主要花青素资源植物中糖基转移酶的研究进展,有助于深入挖掘和鉴定植物中花青素相关糖基转移酶,解析其催化和调控机理,为花青素生物合成、富含花青素的植物资源研发提供新的思路。     

糖基转移酶在神经系统中的作用

神经系统的发育及其正常功能的维持受到精确的控制,其调控异常导致的神经系统疾病成为危害健康的重要因素。研究神经系统的发育及其疾病发生的分子机制是生命科学的热点。糖基转移酶是一组催化糖链合成及糖链与蛋白质或者脂质形成复合物的酶类。糖基转移酶可以调节神经细胞表面多种蛋白质及脂质的糖基化,参与神经系统的发生及多种疾病发病过程的调控。对糖基转移酶在神经系统发育和疾病中的作用做一综述。     

综述: 糖基转移酶超家族在肿瘤转移中的作用

蛋白质的糖基化修饰主要包括N-连接糖基化、O-连接糖基化和糖基磷脂酰肌醇锚定连接．与核酸和蛋白质不同,糖链的合成过程并不遵循传统的基因信息传递的中心法则,主要由一系列催化糖苷键形成的糖基转移酶完成．异常糖基化修饰被认为与恶性肿瘤的发生发展和临床预后密切相关．研究表明,糖基转移酶的表达及其糖链结构的异常可通过调节肿瘤细胞与细胞外基质的相互作用,继而影响肿瘤转移的关键步骤,如上皮间质转化(E-钙黏着蛋白、N-钙黏着蛋白)、细胞的移动性(整合素β1和α5)、侵袭(基质金属蛋白酶MMPs)、浸润(唾液酸化Lewis抗原sLeX和sLeA)．本文主要就唾液酰基转移酶、岩藻糖基转移酶和N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖转移酶等三大糖基转移酶家族的结构和生物学功能及其在肿瘤转移中的作用作一综述,以期为肿瘤转移的预测和诊断提供新思路．     

糖基转移酶超家族在肿瘤转移中的作用

蛋白质的糖基化修饰主要包括N-连接糖基化、O-连接糖基化和糖基磷脂酰肌醇锚定连接.与核酸和蛋白质不同,糖链的合成过程并不遵循传统的基因信息传递的中心法则,主要由一系列催化糖苷键形成的糖基转移酶完成.异常糖基化修饰被认为与恶性肿瘤的发生发展和临床预后密切相关.研究表明,糖基转移酶的表达及其糖链结构的异常可通过调节肿瘤细胞与细胞外基质的相互作用,继而影响肿瘤转移的关键步骤,如上皮间质转化(E-钙黏着蛋白、N-钙黏着蛋白)、细胞的移动性(整合素β1和α5)、侵袭(基质金属蛋白酶MMPs)、浸润(唾液酸化Lewis抗原sLeX和sLeA).本文主要就唾液酰基转移酶、岩藻糖基转移酶和N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖转移酶等三大糖基转移酶家族的结构和生物学功能及其在肿瘤转移中的作用作一综述,以期为肿瘤转移的预测和诊断提供新思路.     

Metabolic oligosaccharide engineering: perspectives, applications, and future directions

Many adhesion and signaling molecules critical for development, as well as surface markers implicated in diseases ranging from cancer to influenza, contain oligosaccharides that modify their functions. Inside a cell, complex glycosylation pathways assemble these oligosaccharides and attach them to proteins and lipids as they traffic to the cell surface. Until recently, practical technologies to manipulate glycosylation have lagged unlike the molecular biologic and genetic methods available to intervene in nucleic acid and protein biochemistry; now, metabolic oligosaccharide engineering shows promise for manipulating glycosylation. In this methodology, exogenously-supplied non-natural sugars intercept biosynthetic pathways and exploit the remarkable ability of many of the enzymes involved in glycosylation to process metabolites with slightly altered chemical structures. To date, non-natural forms of sialic acid, GalNAc, GlcNAc, and fucose have been incorporated into glycoconjugates that appear on the cell surface; in addition O-GlcNAc protein modification involved in intracellular signaling has been tagged with modified forms of this sugar. Reactive functional groups, including ketones, azides, and thiols, have been incorporated into glycoconjugates and thereby provide chemical 'tags' that can be used for diverse purposes ranging from drug delivery to new modes of carbohydrate-based cell adhesion that can be used to control stem cell destiny. Finally, strategies for further engineering non-natural sugars to improve their pharmacological properties and provide complementary biological activities, such as addition of short chain fatty acids, are discussed in this article.     

A general method for the covalent labeling of fusion proteins with small molecules in vivo

Characterizing the movement, interactions, and chemical microenvironment of a protein inside the living cell is crucial to a detailed understanding of its function. Most strategies aimed at realizing this objective are based on genetically fusing the protein of interest to a reporter protein that monitors changes in the environment of the coupled protein. Examples include fusions with fluorescent proteins, the yeast two-hybrid system, and split ubiquitin. However, these techniques have various limitations, and considerable effort is being devoted to specific labeling of proteins in vivo with small synthetic molecules capable of probing and modulating their function. These approaches are currently based on the noncovalent binding of a small molecule to a protein, the formation of stable complexes between biarsenical compounds and peptides containing cysteines, or the use of biotin acceptor domains. Here we describe a general method for the covalent labeling of fusion proteins in vivo that complements existing methods for noncovalent labeling of proteins and that may open up new ways of studying proteins in living cells.     

Posttranslational modifications of microfibril associated glycoprotein-1 (MAGP-1)

Microfibril-associated glycoprotein-1 (MAGP-1) is a small molecular weight protein associated with extracellular matrix microfibrils. Biochemical studies have shown that MAGP-1 undergoes several posttranslational modifications that may influence its associations with other microfibrillar components. To identify the sites in the molecule where posttranslational modifications occur, we expressed MAGP-1 constructs containing various point mutations as well as front and back half truncations in CHO cells. Characterization of transiently expressed protein showed that MAGP-1 undergoes O-linked glycosylation and tyrosine sulfation at sites in its amino-terminal half. This region of the protein also served as a major amine acceptor site for transglutaminase and mediated self-assembly into high molecular weight multimers through a glutamine-rich sequence. Fine mapping of the modification sites through mutational analysis demonstrated that Gln20 is a major amine acceptor site for the transglutaminase reaction and confirmed that a canonical tyrosine sulfation consensus sequence is the site of MAGP-1 sulfation. Our results also show that O-glycosylation occurs at more than one site in the molecule.     

综述: 病毒与宿主细胞的糖基化修饰及相关功能

病毒的复制和对宿主的入侵与自身结构蛋白的糖基化修饰密切相关．对于宿主而言,在病毒感染宿主和宿主抗病毒的过程中,宿主的糖基化过程一方面可抑制病毒的复制和入侵,另一方面可促进病毒对宿主的感染,抑制宿主糖苷酶可抑制病毒的复制．从病毒方面来看,由于病毒自身缺乏糖基化修饰系统,病毒的糖基化过程是借宿主细胞内的合成系统对自身进行糖基化修饰．病毒的糖基化过程对病毒蛋白的折叠与稳定、病毒的感染和入侵、参与识别宿主细胞受体和参与病毒的免疫逃逸等过程起着重要的作用．随着糖基化研究技术的发展,以糖基化为基础的功能应用也越来越深入：如新型病毒疫苗和新型抗病毒药物的研制,以糖蛋白质组学研究为基础的质谱技术和生物信息学方法的发展,以及利用糖基化对病毒性疾病的诊断和治疗等,这些均为糖基化深入研究发展奠定了基础．本文就病毒与宿主细胞糖基化过程、相关功能以及研究应用等进展作一综述．     

Hypusinated EIF5A as a feasible drug target for Advanced Medicinal Therapies in the treatment of pathogenic parasites and therapy-resistant tumors

Cancer drug resistance, in particular in advanced stages such as metastasis and invasion is an emerging problem. Moreover, drug resistance of parasites causing poverty-related diseases is an enormous, global challenge for drug development in the future. To circumvent this problem of increasing resistance, the development of either novel small compounds or Advanced Medicinal Therapies have to be fostered. Polyamines have many fundamental cellular functions like DNA stabilization, protein translation, ion channel regulation, autophagy, apoptosis and mostly important, cell proliferation. Consequently, many antiproliferative drugs can be commonly administered either in cancer therapy or for the treatment of pathogenic parasites. Most important for cell proliferation is the triamine spermidine, since it is an important substrate in the biosynthesis of the posttranslational modification hypusine in eukaryotic initiation factor 5A (EIF5A). To date, no small compound has been identified that directly inhibits the precursor protein EIF5A. Moreover, only a few small molecule inhibitors of the two biosynthetic enzymes, i.e. deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) and deoxyhypusine hydroxylase (DOHH) have been functionally characterized. However, it is evident that only some of the compounds have been applied in translational approaches, i.e. in murine models to analyze the function of this modified protein in cell proliferation. In recent years, the pharmaceutical industry shifted from small molecules beyond traditional pharmacology to new tools and methods to treat disorders involving signaling deregulation. In this review, we evaluate translational approaches on inhibition of EIF5A hypusination in pathogenic parasites and therapy-resistant tumors and discuss its feasibility for an application in Advanced Medicinal Therapies.

     

Purification of the extracellular domain of the membrane protein GlialCAM expressed in HEK and CHO cells and comparison of the glycosylation

Adhesion molecules are essential for a wide range of biological and physiological functions, including cell-cell interactions, cell interactions with the extracellular matrix, cell migration, proliferation and survival. Defects in cell adhesion have been associated with pathological conditions such as neoplasia, and neurodegenerative diseases. We have identified a new adhesion molecule of the immunoglobulin family, GlialCAM. The same protein was recently published under the name hepaCAM and was suggested to be associated with hepatocellular carcinoma. Here we have expressed and purified the extracellular domain of this molecule in two mammalian expression systems, HEK and CHO cells. A three step purification protocol gave an over 95% pure protein. The extracellular domain of GlialCAM possesses several potential N- and O-glycosylation sites. Glycosylation is one of the most common post-translational modifications of secreted proteins and of the extracellular domains of membrane bound proteins. It can influence both the activity and the stability of the protein. The glycosylation pattern has been shown to depend on the cell type where the protein is expressed. We examined if differences in the glycosylation of this protein could be detected when it was expressed in the two commonly used mammalian expression systems, HEK and CHO. Differences in the glycosylation were detected.     

Glycobiology of the neuromuscular junction

Most molecules that are present at synapses are glycosylated with carbohydrates, and some carbohydrate structures are themselves uniquely synaptic in their localization. Thus, proteins or lipids at the synapse may bear distinct carbohydrates that alter their localization or function. Here, I will review the evidence that there are unique synaptic carbohydrates at the neuromuscular junction. Then, I will review the evidence that such carbohydrates can affect the function of synaptic proteins, with particular attention to agrin, dystroglycan, and the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM). Finally, I will review recent data that demonstrates a role for one carbohydrate structure, the cytotoxic T cell (CT) antigen, in neuromuscular development. These studies suggest that glycosylation is an important modification to consider in studies of synapse formation and function.     

NleB/SseKs ortholog effectors as a general bacterial monoglycosyltransferase for eukaryotic proteins

Protein glycosylation is the most common post-translational modification as more than 50% of all human proteins are glycosylated. Pathogenic bacteria glycosylation allows adhesion to host cells and manipulates eukaryotic functions. A variety of acceptor proteins in bacterial glycosylation was recently discovered. Especially NleB/SseKs type III effectors unexpectedly glycosylate a poor nucleophile arginine. Other pathogenic toxins modify the unusual tyrosine, as well as canonical serine/threonine residues. And a huge diversity is found in target proteins; Rho/Ras families, death domains and moreover themselves for autoglycosylation. However, in spite of this acceptor diversity, all their sugar donors are only UDP-Glc/-GlcNAc and structural alignments as liganded show their catalytic cores are geometrically conserved, where DRY and DXD motives and W residues equally position to hold the sugar donors and to π-π bind with a uridine ring, respectively. Therefore, bacterial glycosyltransferases have a key for carbohydrate research problems concerning the sugar donors and target proteins recognition.     

Definitive evidence that a single N-glycan among three glycans on inducible costimulator is required for proper protein trafficking and ligand binding

Glycosylation is a widespread post-translational modification found in glycoproteins. Glycans play key roles in protein folding, quality control in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and protein trafficking within cells. However, it remains unclear whether all positions of protein glycosylation are involved in glycan functions, or if specific positions have individual roles. Here we demonstrate the integral involvement of a specific N-glycan from amongst the three glycans present on inducible costimulator (ICOS), a T-cell costimulatory molecule, in proper protein folding and intracellular trafficking to the cell surface membrane. We found that glycosylation-defective mutant proteins lacking N-glycan at amino-acid position 89 (N89), but not proteins lacking either N23 or N110, were retained within the cell and were not detected on the cell surface membrane. Additional evidence suggested that N89 glycosylation was indirectly involved in ICOS ligand binding. These data suggest that amongst the three putative ICOS glycosylation sites, N89 is required for proper ICOS protein folding in the ER, intracellular trafficking and ligand binding activity. This study represents a substantial contribution to the current mechanistic understanding of the necessity and potential functions of a specific N-glycan among the multiple glycans of glycoproteins.