错配修复蛋白Tmlh1维持嗜热四膜虫细胞核的稳定性

DNA错配修复(DNA mismatch repair,MMR)蛋白Mlh1和其它因子形成多种不同的复合物,在DNA复制后的MMR途径和减数分裂DNA重组中发挥重要作用。然而对Mlh1的功能并不完全清楚,进一步分析Mlh1在不同进化地位生物中的功能具有重要意义。嗜热四膜虫(Tetrahymena thermophila)含有不同的错配修复复合物,基因表达谱分析发现,MutL复合物中的TMLH1(TTHERM_00127000)在营养生长期和饥饿期低水平表达,在有性生殖减数分裂期表达水平显著上调。免疫荧光定位显示营养生长期,Tmlh1定位于生殖系小核和转录活跃的大核;有性生殖期,定位于功能性小核和亲本大核,但在凋亡的大核和小核中消失。在减数分裂和有丝分裂时期,Tmlh1和α-微管蛋白(α-tubulin)存在共定位;而有性生殖后期,Tmlh1与异染色质蛋白Pdd1共定位于DNA删除的异染色结构域。TMLH1敲除细胞增殖速率降低,DNA损伤修复抑制,导致有性生殖细胞配对率降低和微核形成。1 mmol/L甲基甲磺酸甲酯(methy methanesulfonate, MMS)处理下,ΔTMLH1细胞传代时间增加了4.53%±0.35%,而野生型细胞传代时间增加了0.60%±0.14%。TMLH1敲除突变细胞株小核上呈现强烈的γ-H2A.X的荧光信号。免疫共沉淀和蛋白质谱分析发现,Tmlh1同微管蛋白、错配修复因子MutS、同源重组修复关键因子Rad51,非同源末端修复因子Ku80因子等存在相互作用。这些结果表明,嗜热四膜虫错配修复蛋白Tmlh1通过多种途径参与DNA修复和基因组重排,从而维持四膜虫生长发育和有性生殖过程中细胞核的稳定性。     

错配修复蛋白Mlh3对四膜虫有性生殖是必需的

DNA错配修复(mismatch repair, MMR)是一种进化中保守的机制,它校正DNA复制过程中产生的错误,维持基因组的稳定性。MMR家族蛋白同时也参与多种DNA相关的生物学功能。本研究从嗜热四膜虫鉴定了一种新的错配修复蛋白MLH3基因,该基因预测编码 319 个氨基酸,在有性生殖期特异表达。免疫荧光定位表明,HA-Mlh3定位在有性生殖期减数分裂的小核和新发育的大核中。MLH3 敲除的突变体细胞株,在有性生殖发育期停滞在两大核和两小核阶段,新大核DNA复制受阻。γ-H2A.X 检测表明,新大核和小核有性生殖后期断裂的基因组不能正常修复,发育中的细胞裂解,不能形成有性生殖后代。结果表明,Mlh3参与四膜虫新大核发育过程基因组的断裂修复和复制,对四膜虫的有性生殖是必需的。     

嗜热四膜虫SPO11基因缺陷型细胞株的基因表达变化分析

有性生殖的关键过程是通过减数分裂产生生殖细胞,而减数分裂的一个重要环节是进行基于DNA双链断裂的同源染色体重组。在同源染色体重组过程中,SPO11蛋白催化产生DNA双链断裂,从而起始同源染色体的重组。因此,研究SPO11基因缺失在减数分裂过程中所引起的基因表达变化有助于在转录组水平上了解该基因的作用。本研究通过对嗜热四膜虫(Tetrahymena thermophila)野生型和SPO11敲除细胞株在接合生殖时期2 h、3 h、4 h、5 h四个时间点的转录组进行高通量测序。通过差异表达基因分析和功能富集分析,发现SPO11基因敲除之后嗜热四膜虫在接合生殖时期2 h时,与DNA代谢过程和DNA复制相关基因的表达发生变化,推测SPO11基因敲除导致的减数分裂过程异常可能与DNA代谢过程和DNA复制相关。     

周期蛋白Cyc2的过量表达及突变抑制嗜热四膜虫有性生殖发育

周期蛋白在细胞增殖过程中呈现周期性表达变化,不同的周期蛋白通过结合周期蛋白激酶(cyclin-dependent kinase,CDKs)及靶向特定蛋白质参与细胞有丝分裂和减数分裂过程的精确调控。嗜热四膜虫有性生殖期特异表达的B3型周期蛋白Cyc2(cyclin 2,Cyc2)对减数分裂的启始是必需的,但Cyc2蛋白的分子调控机制并不清楚。本研究通过0.1μg/mL和0.3μg/mL镉离子诱导突变细胞株OE-CYC2-B2086和OE-CYC2-CU428中CYC2基因在金属硫蛋白1基因(metallothionein gene 1,MTT1)启动子调控下上调表达。实时荧光定量PCR检测突变株OE-CYC2-B2086和OE-CYC2-CU428中CYC2的转录水平分别上调7.8倍和9.8倍。细胞有性生殖发育进程的荧光显微观察发现CYC2的表达上调并不影响有性生殖前期减数分裂的启始,但是干扰四膜虫有性生殖后期中新大核和新小核的正确形成。同时突变株OE-CYC2-B2086和OE-CYC2-CU428交配后,在镉离子诱导下不能产生有性生殖后代,但是该突变株分别和两种不同野生型细胞或CYC2敲除的突变细胞株交配能够恢复产生3%,15%或32%的有性生殖后代,有性生殖发育异常程度与CYC2的表达水平成正相关。进一步突变Cyc2第312位磷酸化位点丝氨酸为丙氨酸,获得CYC2单位点突变细胞株CYC2-S312A-B和CYC2-S312A-C。丝氨酸单位点突变阻止了四膜虫有性生殖期小核减数第1次分裂起始。结果表明周期蛋白2的表达水平和磷酸化修饰影响了不同阶段细胞核的功能,周期蛋白2对四膜虫有性生殖发育的正常进行是必需的。     

嗜热古菌Sulfolobus acidocaldarius核酸内切酶V的重组表达与酶学特征

[目的] 表达纯化嗜酸嗜热硫化叶菌（Sulfolobus acidocaldarius）的核酸内切酶V （Saci_0544）,对其核酸内切酶活性及酶学特征进行探究。[方法] 将Sulfolobus acidocaldarius核酸内切酶V （SacEndoV）在大肠杆菌中进行重组表达,经亲和层析纯化得到目标蛋白;利用带有不同类型损伤的寡核苷酸作为底物,结合变性聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳技术,鉴定SacEndoV对相应损伤寡核苷酸底物的剪切活性。[结果] SacEndoV特异性剪切含脱氧肌苷（Deoxyinosine）的损伤DNA底物,明显偏好单链DNA底物。SacEndoV在70-95℃温度范围内酶活性高,酶活性依赖于二价金属离子,Mg²⁺为最佳辅助离子,其最佳反应pH为7.5-8.0,高于200 mmol/L的NaCl会明显抑制其剪切活性。损伤DNA中脱氧肌苷3''端相邻的脱氧核糖核苷酸的结构完整性对于SacEndoV识别并剪切相应底物具有重要影响,脱氧肌苷3''端无碱基位点的存在使得SacEndoV不能够切断损伤DNA。此外,经测定SacEndoV对于含肌苷的损伤RNA底物具有剪切活性。[结论] 本研究证实SacEndoV是一种典型的核酸内切酶V,对含脱氧肌苷的损伤DNA具有特异性的内切酶活性,推测其在Sulfolobus acidocaldarius体内参与脱氧肌苷的切除修复。     

过表达周期蛋白Cyc28影响四膜虫的有性生殖进程

真核生物的细胞周期通过连续的激活和失活特定的周期蛋白/周期蛋白依赖性激酶复合物活性进行调控。嗜热四膜虫含有34种周期蛋白,有性生殖期特异表达的周期蛋白Cyc2和Cyc17在四膜虫小核减数分裂中发挥重要功能。本研究从嗜热四膜虫中鉴定出一种新的周期蛋白CYC28 (TTHERM_00082190)基因,预测编码266个氨基酸。实时荧光定量PCR表明,CYC28在有性生殖时期特异表达,且在4 h表达水平最高。通过同源重组构建获得MTT1启动子调控下的HA-CYC28突变体细胞。免疫荧光定位表明,HA-Cyc28定位在细胞质和凋亡的亲本大核中。分别构建CYC28敲除突变株和RNA干扰细胞株,对CYC28敲减突变体细胞的分析发现,营养生长和有性生殖期突变细胞发育正常。然而,过表达株Cyc28突变体引起原核染色体排列异常,原核不能完成有丝分裂形成配子核,有性生殖进程终止。结果表明,Cyc28参与细胞的有性生殖进程,它的正常表达和降解对原核有丝分裂的完成是必需的。     

过表达周期蛋白Cyc28影响四膜虫的有性生殖进程北大核心CSCD

真核生物的细胞周期通过连续的激活和失活特定的周期蛋白/周期蛋白依赖性激酶复合物活性进行调控。嗜热四膜虫含有34种周期蛋白,有性生殖期特异表达的周期蛋白Cyc2和Cyc17在四膜虫小核减数分裂中发挥重要功能。本研究从嗜热四膜虫中鉴定出一种新的周期蛋白CYC28(TTHERM_00082190)基因,预测编码266个氨基酸。实时荧光定量PCR表明,CYC28在有性生殖时期特异表达,且在4 h表达水平最高。通过同源重组构建获得MTT1启动子调控下的HA-CYC28突变体细胞。免疫荧光定位表明,HA-Cyc28定位在细胞质和凋亡的亲本大核中。分别构建CYC28敲除突变株和RNA干扰细胞株,对CYC28敲减突变体细胞的分析发现,营养生长和有性生殖期突变细胞发育正常。然而,过表达株Cyc28突变体引起原核染色体排列异常,原核不能完成有丝分裂形成配子核,有性生殖进程终止。结果表明,Cyc28参与细胞的有性生殖进程,它的正常表达和降解对原核有丝分裂的完成是必需的。     

分枝杆菌非典型错配修复及其在抗生素耐药中的研究进展

错配修复(mismatch repair, MMR)是生物体DNA复制后的一种常见修复系统，对于维持基因组稳定性至关重要，其关键步骤由MutS和MutL蛋白家族的成员执行，尽管这种修复途径十分重要，但在许多古菌和放线菌基因组中并不存在MutS或MutL的同源蛋白。这类细菌(例如分枝杆菌等)采用另一种非典型的MMR途径，由核酸内切酶EndoMS/NucS发挥关键作用，与典型MMR蛋白(MutS/MutL)相比没有结构同源性。EndoMS/NucS介导的非典型错配修复在分枝杆菌DNA修复、突变和同源重组以及抗生素耐药等方面发挥重要作用。本文通过对比典型MMR途径和非典型MMR途径，深入阐述了分枝杆菌EndoMS/NucS介导的非典型MMR途径及其最新进展，以期为分枝杆菌错配修复分子机制带来新见解以及对分枝杆菌抗生素治疗提供研究线索。     

DNA末端构型调控RecJ核酸外切酶活性

目的 核酸酶介导的DNA双链末端切割对同源重组修复至关重要。然而,DNA末端构型对RecJ 5’-3’核酸外切酶活性的调控尚不清楚。本研究旨在探究DNA3’端和5’端构型对RecJ核酸外切酶活性的影响及其机制。方法 为探究DNA3’端构型对RecJ核酸外切酶活性的影响,使用含有Mg²⁺的体系,对具有不同3’突出末端长度（9 nt与18 nt）和3’突出末端修饰（磷酸化和硫代磷酸酯修饰）的单链DNA分别进行RecJ核酸酶活性检测。为揭示DNA 3’端构型对RecJ外切酶活性的调控机制,在Mg²⁺缺失的体系中,使RecJ与底物结合后进行凝胶迁移实验（EMSA）。为探索其他调控因子与DNA3’端构型对RecJ的协同作用,分别检测5’端磷酸化修饰和单链DNA结合蛋白（SSB）对DNA3’突出末端修饰的影响。结果 DNA3’端构型包括突出末端的长度和修饰（磷酸化和硫代磷酸酯修饰）均会抑制RecJ外切酶活性。DNA 3’端磷酸化和硫代磷酸酯修饰通过重塑RecJ-DNA的结合模式抑制RecJ外切酶活性。DNA 5’端磷酸化修饰可增强RecJ对具有不同3’端...     

Red同源重组技术研究进展

伴随着分子生物学的发展,一种基于λ噬菌体Red重组酶的同源重组系统已应用于大肠杆菌基因工程研究。Red重组系统由三种蛋白组成:Exo蛋白是一种核酸外切酶,结合在双链DNA的末端,从5′端向3′端降解DNA,产生3′突出端;Beta蛋白结合在单链DNA上,介导互补单链DNA退火;Gam蛋白可与RecBCD酶结合,抑制其降解外源DNA的活性。Red同源重组技术具有同源序列短(40～60bp)、重组效率高的特点。这种技术可在DNA靶标分子的任意位点进行基因敲除、敲入、点突变等操作,无需使用限制性内切酶和连接酶。此外,这种新型重组技术可直接将目的基因克隆于载体上,目的基因既可来源于细菌人工染色体也可是基因组DNA。Red同源重组技术使难度较大的基因工程实验顺利进行,大大推动功能基因组研究的发展。     

DNA binding properties of the yeast Msh2-Msh6 and Mlh1-Pms1 heterodimers

We describe here our recent studies of the DNA binding properties of Msh2-Msh6 and Mlh1-Pms1, two protein complexes required to repair mismatches generated during DNA replication. Mismatched DNA binding by Msh2-Msh6 was probed by mutagenesis based on the crystal structure of the homologous bacterial MutS homodimer bound to DNA. The results suggest that several amino acid side chains inferred to interact with the DNA backbone near the mismatch are critical for repair activity. These contacts, which are different in Msh2 and Msh6, likely facilitate stacking and hydrogen bonding interactions between side chains in Msh6 and the mismatched base, thus stabilizing a kinked DNA conformation that permits subsequent repair steps coordinated by the Mlh1-Pms1 heterodimer. Mlh1-Pms1 also binds to DNA, but independently of a mismatch. Mlh1-Pms1 binds short DNA substrates with low affinity and with a slight preference for single-stranded DNA. It also binds longer duplex DNA molecules, but with a higher affinity indicative of cooperative binding. Indeed, imaging by atomic force microscopy reveals cooperative DNA binding and simultaneous interaction with two DNA duplexes. The novel DNA binding properties of Mlh1-Pms1 may be relevant to signal transduction during DNA mismatch repair and to recombination, meiosis and cellular responses to DNA damage.     

Functional studies on the candidate ATPase domains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae MutLalpha

Saccharomyces cerevisiae MutL homologues Mlh1p and Pms1p form a heterodimer, termed MutLalpha, that is required for DNA mismatch repair after mismatch binding by MutS homologues. Recent sequence and structural studies have placed the NH(2) termini of MutL homologues in a new family of ATPases. To address the functional significance of this putative ATPase activity in MutLalpha, we mutated conserved motifs for ATP hydrolysis and ATP binding in both Mlh1p and Pms1p and found that these changes disrupted DNA mismatch repair in vivo. Limited proteolysis with purified recombinant MutLalpha demonstrated that the NH(2) terminus of MutLalpha undergoes conformational changes in the presence of ATP and nonhydrolyzable ATP analogs. Furthermore, two-hybrid analysis suggested that these ATP-binding-induced conformational changes promote an interaction between the NH(2) termini of Mlh1p and Pms1p. Surprisingly, analysis of specific mutants suggested differential requirements for the ATPase motifs of Mlh1p and Pms1p during DNA mismatch repair. Taken together, these results suggest that MutLalpha undergoes ATP-dependent conformational changes that may serve to coordinate downstream events during yeast DNA mismatch repair.     

Mlh1-Mlh3, a Meiotic Crossover and DNA Mismatch Repair Factor,Is a Msh2-Msh3-stimulated Endonuclease

Crossing over between homologous chromosomes is initiated in meiotic prophase in most sexually reproducing organisms by the appearance of programmed double strand breaks throughout the genome. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae the double-strand breaks are resected to form three prime single-strand tails that primarily invade complementary sequences in unbroken homologs. These invasion intermediates are converted into double Holliday junctions and then resolved into crossovers that facilitate homolog segregation during Meiosis I. Work in yeast suggests that Msh4-Msh5 stabilizes invasion intermediates and double Holliday junctions, which are resolved into crossovers in steps requiring Sgs1 helicase, Exo1, and a putative endonuclease activity encoded by the DNA mismatch repair factor Mlh1-Mlh3. We purified Mlh1-Mlh3 and showed that it is a metal-dependent and Msh2-Msh3-stimulated endonuclease that makes single-strand breaks in supercoiled DNA. These observations support a direct role for an Mlh1-Mlh3 endonuclease activity in resolving recombination intermediates and in DNA mismatch repair.     

MLH1 mutations differentially affect meiotic functions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

To test whether missense mutations in the cancer susceptibility gene MLH1 adversely affect meiosis, we examined 14 yeast MLH1 mutations for effects on meiotic DNA transactions and gamete viability in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mutations analogous to those associated with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) or those that reduce Mlh1p interactions with ATP or DNA all impair replicative mismatch repair as measured by increased mutation rates. However, their effects on meiotic heteroduplex repair, crossing over, chromosome segregation, and gametogenesis vary from complete loss of meiotic functions to no meiotic defect, and mutants defective in one meiotic process are not necessarily defective in others. DNA binding and ATP binding but not ATP hydrolysis are required for meiotic crossing over. The results reveal clear separation of different Mlh1p functions in mitosis and meiosis, and they suggest that some, but not all, MLH1 mutations may be a source of human infertility.     

Differential ATP binding and intrinsic ATP hydrolysis by amino-terminal domains of the yeast Mlh1 and Pms1 proteins.

MutL homologs belong to a family of proteins that share a conserved ATP binding site. We demonstrate that amino-terminal domains of the yeast MutL homologs Mlh1 and Pms1 required for DNA mismatch repair both possess independent, intrinsic ATPase activities. Amino acid substitutions in the conserved ATP binding sites concomitantly reduce ATP binding, ATP hydrolysis, and DNA mismatch repair in vivo. The ATPase activities are weak, consistent with the hypothesis that ATP binding is primarily responsible for modulating interactions with other MMR components. Three approaches, ATP hydrolysis assays, limited proteolysis protection, and equilibrium dialysis, provide evidence that the amino-terminal domain of Mlh1 binds ATP with >10-fold higher affinity than does the amino-terminal domain of Pms1. This is consistent with a model wherein ATP may first bind to Mlh1, resulting in events that permit ATP binding to Pms1 and later steps in DNA mismatch repair.     

Contribution of human mlh1 and pms2 ATPase activities to DNA mismatch repair

MutLalpha, a heterodimer composed of Mlh1 and Pms2, is the major MutL activity in mammalian DNA mismatch repair. Highly conserved motifs in the N termini of both subunits predict that the protein is an ATPase. To study the significance of these motifs to mismatch repair, we have expressed in insect cells wild type human MutLalpha and forms altered in conserved glutamic acid residues, predicted to catalyze ATP hydrolysis of Mlh1, Pms2, or both. Using an in vitro assay, we showed that MutLalpha proteins altered in either glutamic acid residue were each partially defective in mismatch repair, whereas the double mutant showed no detectable mismatch repair. Neither strand specificity nor directionality of repair was affected in the single mutant proteins. Limited proteolysis studies of MutLalpha demonstrated that both Mlh1 and Pms2 N-terminal domains undergo ATP-induced conformational changes, but the extent of the conformational change for Mlh1 was more apparent than for Pms2. Furthermore, Mlh1 was protected at lower ATP concentrations than Pms2, suggesting Mlh1 binds ATP with higher affinity. These findings imply that ATP hydrolysis is required for MutLalpha activity in mismatch repair and that this activity is associated with differential conformational changes in Mlh1 and Pms2.     

Functional residues on the surface of the N-terminal domain of yeast Pms1

Saccharomyces cerevisiae MutLα is a heterodimer of Mlh1 and Pms1 that participates in DNA mismatch repair (MMR). Both proteins have weakly conserved C-terminal regions (CTDs), with the CTD of Pms1 harboring an essential endonuclease activity. These proteins also have conserved N-terminal domains (NTDs) that bind and hydrolyze ATP and bind to DNA. To better understand Pms1 functions and potential interactions with DNA and/or other proteins, we solved the 2.5 Å crystal structure of yeast Pms1 (yPms1) NTD. The structure is similar to the homologous NTDs of Escherichia coli MutL and human PMS2, including the site involved in ATP binding and hydrolysis. The structure reveals a number of conserved, positively charged surface residues that do not interact with other residues in the NTD and are therefore candidates for interactions with DNA, with the CTD and/or with other proteins. When these were replaced with glutamate, several replacements resulted in yeast strains with elevated mutation rates. Two replacements also resulted in NTDs with decreased DNA binding affinity in vitro, suggesting that these residues contribute to DNA binding that is important for mismatch repair. Elevated mutation rates also resulted from surface residue replacements that did not affect DNA binding, suggesting that these conserved residues serve other functions, possibly involving interactions with other MMR proteins.     

Endonuclease activities of MutLα and its homologs in DNA mismatch repair

MutLα is a key component of the DNA mismatch repair system in eukaryotes. The DNA mismatch repair system has several genetic stabilization functions. Of these functions, DNA mismatch repair is the major one. The loss of MutLα abolishes DNA mismatch repair, thereby predisposing humans to cancer. MutLα has an endonuclease activity that is required for DNA mismatch repair. The endonuclease activity of MutLα depends on the DQHA(X)₂E(X)₄E motif which is a part of the active site of the nuclease. This motif is also present in many bacterial MutL and eukaryotic MutLγ proteins, DNA mismatch repair system factors that are homologous to MutLα. Recent studies have shown that yeast MutLγ and several MutL proteins containing the DQHA(X)₂E(X)₄E motif possess endonuclease activities. Here, we review the endonuclease activities of MutLα and its homologs in the context of DNA mismatch repair.     

Bound nucleotide controls the endonuclease activity of mismatch repair enzyme MutL

DNA mismatch repair corrects mismatched base pairs mainly caused by replication error. Recent studies revealed that human MutL endonuclease, hPMS2, plays an essential role in the repair. However, there has been little biochemical analysis of the MutL endonuclease. In particular, it is unknown for what the MutL utilizes ATP binding and hydrolyzing activity. Here we report the detailed functional analysis of Thermus thermophilus MutL (ttMutL). ttMutL exhibited an endonuclease activity that decreased on alteration of Asp-364 in ttMutL to Asn. The biochemical characteristics of ttMutL were significantly affected on ATP binding, which suppressed nonspecific DNA digestion and promoted the mismatch- and MutS-dependent DNA binding. The inactivation of the cysteinyl residues in the C-terminal domain resulted in the perturbation in ATP-dependent regulation of the endonuclease activity, although the ATP-binding motif is located in the N-terminal domain. Complementation experiments revealed that the endonuclease activity of ttMutL and its regulation by ATP binding are necessary for DNA repair in vivo.