TGF—β超家族在软骨发生、发育和维持中的作用

转化生长因子β(Transforming growth factor β,TGF-β)超家族包括TGF-β和骨形态发生蛋白(Bone morphogenetic protein,BMP)两个亚家族.TGF-β超家族信号通路的配体、配体拮抗分子,受体、信号转导分子均在软骨内成骨过程中发挥各自独特的作用,参与调控软骨细胞的谱系分化、增殖、成熟、凋亡和矿化.BMP信号能起始间充质细胞向软骨细胞分化并维持软骨细胞的特性,在软骨发生过程中起主导作用;在生长板发育的过程中,BMP信号促进软骨细胞的成熟,促进成骨,而TGF-β信号抑制软骨细胞的肥大分化,维持生长板中适量的软骨细胞;TGF-β信号和BMP信号对于关节软骨的维持和修复都是不可或缺的.因此,TGF-β超家族的重要作用贯穿骨骼发育过程的始终.     

TGF-β超家族在软骨发生、发育和维持中的作用

转化生长因子b(Transforming growth factor b, TGF-b)超家族包括TGF-b和骨形态发生蛋白(Bone morphogenetic protein,BMP)两个亚家族。TGF-b超家族信号通路的配体、配体拮抗分子、受体、信号转导分子均在软骨内成骨过程中发挥各自独特的作用, 参与调控软骨细胞的谱系分化、增殖、成熟、凋亡和矿化。BMP信号能起始间充质细胞向软骨细胞分化并维持软骨细胞的特性, 在软骨发生过程中起主导作用; 在生长板发育的过程中, BMP信号促进软骨细胞的成熟, 促进成骨, 而TGF-b信号抑制软骨细胞的肥大分化, 维持生长板中适量的软骨细胞; TGF-b信号和BMP信号对于关节软骨的维持和修复都是不可或缺的。因此, TGF-b超家族的重要作用贯穿骨骼发育过程的始终。     

骨形态发生蛋白的受体及其信号传递过程

近年来已克隆出几种Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型BMP受体.BMP受体属于TGFβ受体超家族的成员,具有丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶活性.Ⅰ型与Ⅱ型BMP受体均可与BMP配基结合,但若执行传递信号功能,两受体需首先形成复合物.删除突变和基因剔除研究证明,ⅠA型BMP受体对动物的中胚层发育至关重要.而ⅠB型BMP受体在软骨细胞形成、成骨细胞分化以及程序化细胞死亡方面起主要作用.BMP受体信号传递分子Smad 1和Smad 5也已被克隆和鉴定,它们在BMP受体介导的功能中起重要作用.     

骨形态发生蛋白在脂肪生成中的作用

骨形态发生蛋白（bone morphogenesis proteins, BMP）是一类多功能生长因子,除BMP1外都属于转化生长因子β（transforming growth factor beta, TGFβ）超家族的成员. 近年来,越来越多的研究表明,BMP在脂肪生成过程中也起着重要的作用. 本文综述了BMP在诱导间充质干细胞（mesenchymal stem cells, MSC）、脂肪前体细胞系和胚胎干细胞（embryonic stem cells, ESC）生成脂肪细胞的过程中的作用及信号通路方面的研究进展.这些结果将有助于了解不同部位脂肪沉积的调控机制以及一些脂肪过多疾病（如肥胖症）的产生原因     

BMP1基因在动物卵泡发生和胚胎发育中的表达规律及调控机制的研究进展

骨形态发生蛋白1(BMP1)是一类属于虾红素家族的金属蛋白酶,它在细胞外基质的形成以及调控TGFβ信号通路的过程中发挥重要作用。BMP1基因在动物卵泡发育过程中具有不同程度表达,并以某种形式参与了动物胚胎的发生和发育过程。开展对BMP1基因的研究将有助于人们从基因角度进一步阐明动物卵泡的形成和胚胎发育的机制,对医学和畜牧业等领域将产生积极的影响。着重从BMP1基因在动物胚胎发育过程中的表达定位、功能及其机制进行综述。     

斑马鱼胚胎背腹轴建立的分子机制

脊椎动物胚胎发育起始于体轴的建立,是胚胎早期发育过程中最重要的事件之一。Wnt、BMP、Nodal和FGF等多个信号通路协同调控细胞分化和细胞运动,促进胚胎胚层的形成和空间上的分离,调控胚胎背腹轴、前后轴和左右轴线的分化,为胚胎进一步发育勾勒出蓝图。本文主要综述斑马鱼胚胎背腹轴建立的分子机制,包括背部组织中心简介;母源Wnt/β-catenin信号调控背部组织中心形成的分子机制;BMP信号调控背腹轴建立的分子机制。     

骨形态发生蛋白2通过Smad途径上调Osterix的表达

Osterix（Osx）是一种重要的调控成骨细胞分化的具有锌指结构的转录因子．骨形态发生蛋白2（bone morphogenetic protein 2, BMP2）能够上调Osx的表达,但其分子机制并不清楚．采用实时定量RT-PCR方法检测到BMP2诱导成骨相关细胞C3H10T1/2, MC3T3-E1, C2C12中Osx的转录水平显著上调,并且与成骨分化指标Col1a1, osteocalcin具有相似的表达动力学特征．而且,在C3H10T1/2细胞中过表达负显性（dominant negative, DN）Osx基因,能够有效抑制BMP2诱导的成骨分化．过表达BMP/Smad信号通路抑制蛋白Smad6,能够抑制Osx转录水平的上调．但是通过荧光素酶报告载体对Osx的启动子-1254～+85区域进行分析后未发现接受BMP通路调控的启动子区域．上述结果表明,BMP2能够通过Smad途径上调Osx的表达,并对成骨分化的过程具有十分重要的作用．     

骨形成蛋白-15基因研究进展

骨形成蛋白-15(BMP-15)是属于转移生长因子-β超家族生长因子的一种分泌型信号分子,仅在卵母细胞中特异性表达,具有促进卵泡生长,阻止黄体早熟的作用。开展对BMP-15基因的研究将有助于人们从基因角度阐明不育或多胎的形成和发展机制,对医学和畜牧业等领域将产生积极的影响。从BMP基因控制排卵数的机制入手,总结BMP-15基因的研究进展。     

BMP9对人肺腺癌AS49细胞侵袭、迁移的影响及机制的研究

BMP9属于TGF-β超家族的成员,参与多种细胞的增殖、分化、凋亡、侵袭、转移过程。以人肺腺癌细胞A549作为目的细胞,采用腺病毒体外感染方式,外源性高表达BMP9。RT-PCR及Westernblot检测重组细胞中BMP9的表达,通过细胞划痕实验、Transwell侵袭实验检测AdBMP9细胞侵袭及迁移改变,RT-PCR及Westernblot检测感染BMP9腺病毒后IL-6的mRNA和蛋白表达：Westemblotg检测NPI3K／Akt信号通路中总Akt和磷酸化Akt蛋白的表达。结果显示：与对照组细胞相比,感染BMP9腺病毒后,A549中BMP9mRNA和蛋白表达明显升高;实验组划痕愈合率由对照的（85．4±2．11％与（86．5±3．4）％上升至（97．4±2．6）％（P〈0．05）;实验组穿膜细胞数由对照的（115．5±13．1）个与（123．3±14．9）个上升至（224．3±24．6）个（P〈0．05）;与对照组细胞相比,AdBMP9组IL-6的表达上调,磷酸化Akt蛋白表达上调。该研究表明,BMP9可能通过上调IL-6的表达,激活P13K／Akt信号通路,促进人肺腺癌A549的侵袭、迁移。     

BMP/Smad信号通路与哺乳动物卵泡发生

BMPs属于TGF-b超家族成员, 在调节哺乳动物的生长、细胞增殖和分化等方面有很广泛的生物学功能。越来越多的证据显示, BMPs在雌性哺乳动物生殖, 尤其在卵泡发生过程中发挥重要作用。Smads蛋白是BMP家族细胞内信号转导分子, 可将BMPs胞外信号从细胞膜传递入细胞核。文章对BMPs、BMP/Smad信号通路和BMP如何被调节进行概述, 并重点对BMP/Smad信号通路在卵泡发生过程中所起的调控作用进行综述。     

Enhanced Osteogenesis of Adipose Derived Stem Cells with Noggin Suppression and Delivery of BMP-2

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are believed to be the most potent osteoinductive factors. However, BMPs are highly pleiotropic molecules and their supra-physiological high dose requirement leads to adverse side effects and inefficient bone formation. Thus, there is a need to develop alternative osteoinductive growth factor strategies that can effectively complement BMP activity. In this study, we intrinsically stimulated BMP signaling in adipose derived stem cells (ASCs) by downregulating noggin, a potent BMP antagonist, using an RNAi strategy. ASCs transduced with noggin shRNA significantly enhanced osteogenic differentiation of cells. The potency of endogenous BMPs was subsequently enhanced by stimulating ASCs with exogenous BMPs at a significantly reduced dose. The level of mineralization in noggin shRNA treated ASCs when treated with BMP-2 was comparable to that of control shRNA treated cell treated with 10-fold more BMP-2. The complementary strategy of noggin suppression + BMP-2 to enhance osteogenesis was further confirmed in 3D in vitro environments using scaffolds consisting of chitosan (CH), chondroitin sulfate (CS), and apatite layer on their surfaces designed to slowly release BMP-2. This finding supports the novel therapeutic potential of this complementary strategy in bone regeneration.     

Repulsive guidance molecule (RGMa), a DRAGON homologue, is a bone morphogenetic protein co-receptor

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are members of the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) superfamily of ligands, which regulate many mammalian physiologic and pathophysiologic processes. BMPs exert their effects through type I and type II serine/threonine kinase receptors and the Smad intracellular signaling pathway. Recently, the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored protein DRAGON was identified as a co-receptor for BMP signaling. Here, we investigate whether a homologue of DRAGON, repulsive guidance molecule (RGMa), is similarly involved in the BMP signaling pathway. We show that RGMa enhances BMP, but not TGF-beta, signals in a ligand-dependent manner in cell culture. The soluble extracellular domain of RGMa fused to human Fc (RGMa.Fc) forms a complex with BMP type I receptors and binds directly and selectively to radiolabeled BMP-2 and BMP-4. RGMa mediates BMP signaling through the classical BMP signaling pathway involving Smad1, 5, and 8, and it up-regulates endogenous inhibitor of differentiation (Id1) protein, an important downstream target of BMP signals. Finally, we demonstrate that BMP signaling occurs in neurons that express RGMa in vivo. These data are consistent with a role for RGMa as a BMP co-receptor.     

The dynamic role of bone morphogenetic proteins in neural stem cell fate and maturation

The bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are a group of powerful morphogens that are critical for development of the nervous system. The effects of BMP signaling on neural stem cells are myriad and dynamic, changing with each stage of development. During early development inhibition of BMP signaling differentiates neuroectoderm from ectoderm, and BMP signaling helps to specify neural crest. Thus modulation of BMP signaling underlies formation of both the central and peripheral nervous systems. BMPs secreted from dorsal structures then form a gradient which helps pattern the dorsal-ventral axis of the developing spinal cord and brain. During forebrain development BMPs sequentially induce neurogenesis and then astrogliogenesis and participate in neurite outgrowth from immature neurons. BMP signaling also plays a critical role in maintaining adult neural stem cell niches in the subventricular zone (SVZ) and subgranular zone (SGZ). BMPs are able to exert such diverse effects through closely regulated temporospatial expression and interaction with other signaling pathways.     

Diverse Bone Morphogenetic Protein Expression Profiles and Smad Pathway Activation in Different Phenotypes of Experimental Canine Mammary Tumors

Background

BMPs are currently receiving attention for their role in tumorigenesis and tumor progression. Currently, most BMP expression studies are performed on carcinomas, and not much is known about the situation in sarcomas.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We have investigated the BMP expression profiles and Smad activation in clones from different spontaneous canine mammary tumors. Spindle cell tumor and osteosarcoma clones expressed high levels of BMPs, in particular BMP-2, -4 and -6. Clones from a scirrhous carcinoma expressed much lower BMP levels. The various clones formed different tumor types in nude mice but only clones that expressed high levels of BMP-6 gave bone formation. Phosphorylated Smad-1/5, located in the nucleus, was detected in tumors derived from clones expressing high levels of BMPs, indicating an active BMP signaling pathway and BMP-2 stimulation of mammary tumor cell clones in vitro resulted in activation of the Smad-1/5 pathway. In contrast BMP-2 stimulation did not induce phosphorylation of the non-Smad pathway p38 MAPK. Interestingly, an increased level of the BMP-antagonist chordin-like 1 was detected after BMP stimulation of non-bone forming clones.

Conclusions/Significance

We conclude that the specific BMP expression repertoire differs substantially between different types of mammary tumors and that BMP-6 expression most probably has a biological role in bone formation of canine mammary tumors.     

Systems control of BMP morphogen flow in vertebrate embryos

Embryonic morphogenetic programs coordinate cell behavior to ensure robust pattern formation. Having identified components of those programs by molecular genetics, developmental biology is now borrowing concepts and tools from systems biology to decode their regulatory logic. Dorsal-ventral (D-V) patterning of the frog gastrula by Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) is one of the best studied examples of a self-regulating embryonic patterning system. Embryological analyses and mathematical modeling are revealing that the BMP activity gradient is maintained by a directed flow of BMP ligands towards the ventral side. Pattern robustness is ensured through feedback control of the levels of extracellular BMP pathway modulators that adjust the flow to the dimensions of the embryonic field.     

Expression of bone morphogenetic protein-7, its receptors and Smad1/5/8 in normal human kidney and renal cell cancer

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are cytokines which are important for kidney homeostasis but also have role in the some renal diseases and renal cell carcinoma (RCC). In the last three decades incidence of RCC was constantly increased and the role of different molecular biomarkers in RCC is explored'. We analyzed expression of BMP-7, their receptors (BMPR-IA, BMPR-IB, BMPR-II) and proteins of their signaling pathway (pSmad1/5/8) in sixteen renal cancer samples and paired normal tissue. Tissue samples were analyzed by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. BMP-7, BMP receptors and pSmad1/5/8 were expressed in all structures of normal kidney but dominantly in the proximal tubular cells. In the cancer samples their expression was also noticed. Comparison of BMPs between different tissue showed increased expression of BMPR-IB and pSmad 1/5/8 and decreased expression of BMP-7 and BMPR-II in RCC compared to normal kidney. BMPR-IA was detected with immunohistochemistry but with Western blot attenuated signal was presented. BMP-7, BMP receptors and pSmad1/5/8 were showed in normal kidney and RCC. Detected alterations of BMP-7, BMP receptors and pSmad expression in RCC suggested their possible role in tumorigenesis of kidney cancer.     

BMP-2/4 and BMP-6/7 differentially utilize cell surface receptors to induce osteoblastic differentiation of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are members of the transforming growth factor-beta superfamily of growth factors and are used clinically to induce new bone formation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate receptor utilization by BMP-2, BMP-4, BMP-6, and BMP-7 in primary human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC), a physiologically relevant cell type that probably mediates the in vivo effects of BMPs. RNA interference-mediated gene knockdown revealed that osteoinductive BMP activities in hMSC are elicited through the type I receptors ACVR1A and BMPR1A and the type II receptors ACVR2A and BMPR2. BMPR1B and ACVR2B were expressed at low levels and were not found to play a significant role in signaling by any of the BMPs evaluated in this study. Type II receptor utilization differed significantly between BMP-2/4 and BMP-6/7. A greater reliance on BMPR2 was observed for BMP-2/4 relative to BMP-6/7, whereas ACVR2A was more critical to signaling by BMP-6/7 than BMP-2/4. Significant differences were also observed for the type I receptors. Although BMP-2/4 used predominantly BMPR1A for signaling, ACVR1A was the preferred type I receptor for BMP-6/7. Signaling by both BMP-2/4 and BMP-6/7 was mediated by homodimers of ACVR1A or BMPR1A. A portion of BMP-2/4 signaling also required concurrent BMPR1A and ACVR1A expression, suggesting that BMP-2/4 signal in part through ACVR1A/BMPR1A heterodimers. The capacity of ACVR1A and BMPR1A to form homodimers and heterodimers was confirmed by bioluminescence resonance energy transfer analyses. These results suggest different mechanisms for BMP-2/4- and BMP-6/7-induced osteoblastic differentiation in primary hMSC.     

USAG-1: a bone morphogenetic protein antagonist abundantly expressed in the kidney

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) play critical roles in cellular proliferation, differentiation, and programmed cell death in multiple tissues. An increasing body of recent evidence has suggested that classes of molecules collectively termed BMP antagonists play important roles for the local regulation of BMP actions by binding BMPs and neutralizing their activities. Uterine sensitization-associated gene-1 (USAG-1) was previously reported as a gene of unknown function, preferentially expressed in sensitized endometrium of the rat uterus. Here, we show that USAG-1 is abundantly expressed in the kidney and functions as a BMP antagonist. Recombinant USAG-1 binds directly to BMPs and antagonizes the BMP-mediated induction of alkaline phosphatase in C2C12 cells. USAG-1 also induces formation of secondary axis and/or hyperdorsalization when its mRNA is injected to Xenopus embryos. In the early stage of mouse embryogenesis, USAG-1 is expressed in the first and second branchial arches and in metanephros, while in later stages the expression is confined to renal tubules and ameloblasts of teeth. Postnatally, the expression is further restricted to distal tubules of kidney, in a pattern similar to the localization of BMP-7, which has been shown to be important in the development of kidney and preservation of adult renal functions under pathological stresses. Collectively, we suggest that USAG-1 is a BMP antagonist that interacts with BMP-7 in the developing and adult kidney.     

BMP-3 is a novel inhibitor of both activin and BMP-4 signaling in Xenopus embryos

In Xenopus, the biological effects of BMP-3 oppose those of ventralizing BMPs, but the mechanism for this antagonism remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that BMP-3 is a dorso-anteriorizing factor in Xenopus embryos that interferes with both activin and BMP signaling. BMP-3 acts by binding to ActRIIB, the common type II receptor for these proteins. Once BMP-3 binds to ActRIIB, it cannot be competed off by excess ligand making a receptor complex that is unable to activate R-Smads and transduce signal. Consistent with a model where BMP-3 interferes with activin and BMPs through a shared receptor, we show that overexpression of BMP-3 can only be rescued by co-injection of xActRIIB. Our results identify BMP-3 as a novel antagonist of both activin and BMPs and uncover how some of the diverse developmental processes that are regulated by both activin and BMP signaling can be modulated during embryogenesis.     

BMP controls nitric oxide-mediated regulation of cell numbers in the developing neural tube

Balanced cell proliferation and cell death determines neural precursor cell numbers in early stages of neural tube (NT) development. We have previously shown that nitric oxide (NO) regulates cell numbers locally in the NT of eight to 12 somite embryos. Here, we demonstrate that bone morphogenetic protein-4 (BMP-4), which is expressed in the ectoderm and dorsal NT at these developmental stages, induces programmed cell death (PCD) and promotes entry into the S-phase, via nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity. These effects can be reversed by BMP-4 antagonists, such as follistatin and noggin, or by specific NOS inhibitors, resulting in low NO levels that facilitate mitosis and reduce PCD. Ectopic BMP-4 induction of PCD is restricted to the dorsal NT, whereas promotion of the S-phase is evenly observed across the dorsal-ventral (D-V) axis. Prolonged exposure to either BMP-4 or NOS inhibitors, which results in high or low NO levels, respectively, causes NT defects. The results presented here throw new light on the BMP signaling pathway. The local presence of BMP-4 helps to regulate cell numbers in the developing NT by a NO-mediated pathway, which is essential for normal NT formation.