维持性血液透析患者慢性肾脏病矿物质和骨异常患病情况调查及血管钙化的危险因素分析

目的:调查维持性血液透析(MHD)患者慢性肾脏病矿物质和骨异常(CKD-MBD)患病情况,并分析血管钙化的危险因素。方法:选取2017年2月～2018年12月我院收治的MHD患者229例记为研究对象。统计并记录所有患者CKD-MBD患病情况,并通过Kauppila评分对所有患者的血管钙化情况予以评定,将患者按照Kauppila评分结果分为钙化组与非钙化组。比较两组患者基本资料以及血生化指标水平,并采用多因素Logistic回归分析MHD患者血管钙化的影响因素。结果:229例MHD患者中CKD-MBD患病率按照从高到低的顺序分别为高甲状旁腺激素(PTH)、高磷血症、低钙血症、低PTH、高钙血症、低磷血症,占比分别为45.85%、42.36%、30.57%、20.09%、19.65%、10.04%。229例MHD患者血管钙化发生率为68.56%。钙化组年龄、透析时间、血磷、颈动脉内膜中层厚度(IMT)、超敏C反应蛋白(hs-CRP)水平均高于非钙化组(均P0.05)。经多因素Logistic回归分析可得:年龄、透析时间、hs-CRP均是MHD患者血管钙化的独立危险因素(均P0.05)。结论:MHD患者CKD-MBD患病情况不容乐观,多见于高PTH、高磷血症、低钙血症。其中年龄、透析时间、hs-CRP均与MHD患者血管钙化密切相关,值得临床重点关注。     

醛固酮在终末期肾病患者动脉血管钙化中作用的研究进展

动脉血管钙化是终末期肾病(ESRD)患者发生心血管事件的重要原因。升高的血钙、血磷、1,25-(OH)2-维生素D3、炎症与氧化应激等因素共同促进了ESRD患者血管钙化的发生。最近发现,醛固酮可通过诱发血管局部炎症、增加氧化应激水平、分泌骨化相关蛋白、促进血管平滑肌细胞凋亡等多种机制诱导ESRD患者发生血管钙化。积极干预醛固酮的有害效应,对于早期防治ESRD患者血管钙化可能有重要意义。     

缺氧诱导因子在慢性肾脏病进展至终末期肾病中的作用机制

慢性肾脏病(chronic kidney disease,CKD)已经成为影响全球健康的难题，延缓其进展至终末期肾病(end-stage renal disease,ESRD)阶段是治疗CKD的重要目标。缺氧和缺氧诱导因子(hypoxia inducible factor,HIF)与CKD的发生和发展有着密切的联系，HIF表达的增加可以延缓CKD的进程，减少CKD并发症的发生。本文主要从CKD贫血、肾间质纤维化、炎症、血管钙化以及急性肾损伤方面论述了HIF在其中发挥的作用，旨在为延缓CKD进展至ESRD阶段提供新的靶点和思路，改善CKD患者的预后。     

焦磷酸盐与血管钙化

血管钙化是指促钙化因子与抑钙化因子失衡导致钙磷在血管壁的异常沉积,与心血管疾病的高发病率与高死亡率密切相关。细胞外焦磷酸盐作为内源性羟磷灰石结晶形成的抑制剂,在血管钙化的发生中发挥重要的作用。近年来的研究发现,焦磷酸盐代谢异常是导致某些家族遗传性疾病及慢性肾病患者发生血管钙化的重要机制。本文着重对焦磷酸盐在体内的代谢、焦磷酸盐及其代谢相关酶在血管钙化发生中的作用进行综述。     

高血磷诱导慢性肾衰患者血管钙化作用机制

血管钙化是慢性肾病患者心血管疾病发生的主要原因,由于肾脏功能紊乱以及继发的内分泌调节紊乱,慢性肾病病人常常发生高磷血症。众多的研究表明,升高的血清磷能够直接作用于血管平滑肌细胞进而促进血管钙化。目前的研究显示,高磷能够通过诱导平滑肌细胞分化为软骨/成骨样细胞、促进细胞凋亡以及激活氧化应激和炎症反应等多方面促进血管钙化。本文主要综述高磷导致血管钙化机制的研究最新进展,以及控制患者血清磷对于防治血管钙化的效果。     

细胞外囊泡在血管钙化中的调节作用

血管钙化与不良心血管事件发生有关,可增加心血管疾病死亡风险。血管钙化发病机制复杂,尚未研究清楚。近年来,作为细胞间重要的信号传递分子,细胞外囊泡(extracellular vesicles, EVs)在血管钙化中的重要作用引起了国内外学者的广泛关注。本综述将简述近年来EVs(主要包括外泌体和微囊泡)在血管壁钙化过程中的作用,着重围绕平滑肌细胞(smooth muscle cells, SMCs)分化、钙磷平衡的具体机制来阐述两者之间的关联,同时预测EVs可能成为一些心血管疾病中的预后标记物以及具有潜在的治疗潜力。     

脂肪因子在慢性肾脏病血管钙化中的作用

慢性肾脏病(chronic kidney disease, CKD)是一种全球性的经济成本高的健康负担。慢性肾脏病首要的死亡并发症是心血管疾病(cardiovascular disease, CVD),而血管钙化是引起慢性肾脏病患者发生心血管疾病的主要原因。当体内的促钙化因子与抑钙化因子失衡时,会激活血管内皮细胞一系列反应,从而促进血管钙化。最近研究发现在慢性肾脏病血管钙化的发生、发展过程中,脂肪因子扮演着重要角色。本文对各种脂肪因子在慢性肾脏病血管钙化中的作用进行详细的阐述,希望可以为慢性肾脏病血管钙化的防治提供新思路。     

细胞外基质、基质水解酶与血管钙化

血管钙化常见于动脉粥样硬化、糖尿病、慢性肾功能衰竭及衰老的血管.近年来的研究证实血管钙化的发生是一种类似于生理性矿化的主动调节过程,而非单纯的钙磷的被动沉积.血管细胞外基质是血管的主要组成成分,对血管起支持、保护作用,且与血管壁细胞相互作用影响其粘附、增殖、迁移、分化等功能,同时又是各种生长因子和细胞因子的储存库.目前的研究显示,在血管钙化过程中细胞外基质的组成和表达可能发生了变化,并参与了对钙化进程的主动调节.基质水解酶可能通过基质降解依赖或非依赖的机制,在钙化的发生发展中起到重要作用.本文主要综述了在血管钙化过程中细胞外基质的变化及其对血管钙化的作用,以及基质水解酶对血管钙化过程可能的影响.     

血清超敏C反应蛋白水平与慢性肾脏病患者心血管并发症发生风险关系的探讨

目的:探讨血清超敏C反应蛋白(hs-CRP)水平与慢性肾脏病(CKD)患者心血管并发症发生风险关系。方法:选择82例CKD患者与21例健康体检者为研究对象,根据肾小球滤过率(e GFR)将CKD患者分成CKDl~2期组、CKD3~4期组和CKD5期组。检测和比较各组hs-CRP、B型钠尿肽前体(pro-BNP)、尿素氮(BUN)、尿酸(UA)、肌酐(Cr)、前白蛋白(PA)、白蛋白(Alb)、同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)、甘油三酯(TG)、总胆固醇(TC)、高密度脂蛋白(HDL)、低密度脂蛋白(LDL)、钙(Ca)、磷(P)、血红蛋白(Hb)的水平,同时评估患者是否有心肌缺血及心室肥厚、心脏瓣膜钙化表现。结果:随着e GFR下降,CKD患者血清hs-CRP水平呈上升趋势,不同CKD分期患者血清hs-CRP水平之间差异具有统计学意义(P0.01),CKD患者血清hs-CRP水平与BUN、Cr、UA、P、TG、Hcy、pro-BNP水平之间均存在明显的正相关(P0.05);血清hs-CRP水平与白蛋白、Hb、Ca、HDL之间均存在明显的负相关(P0.05);血清hs-CRP水平与前白蛋白、胆固醇、LDL之间无显著相关性(P0.05)。以hs-CRP为因变量,其他相关指标为自变量进行多元逐步回归分析,结果显示尿酸、Hb、Hcy进入多元逐步回归方程。以心肌缺血是否阳性和瓣膜钙化是否阳性为因变量,hs-CRP为自变量做logistic回归分析,结果显示血清hs-CRP水平为心肌缺血和瓣膜钙化的危险因素(OR1)。结论:CKD患者血清hs-CRP水平升高与其肾功能降低密切相关,且为其发生心肌缺血、心脏瓣膜钙化的危险因素。     

外泌体调控血管钙化的研究进展

血管钙化是钙、磷等矿物质在血管壁的异常沉积,是一个主动的、活跃的、被高度调控的生物学过程,受到钙磷代谢紊乱、氧化应激、机械应力和炎症等多种因素的影响.作为胞间通讯的重要载体,外泌体已被证实与血管钙化的发生密切相关.一方面,外泌体可以通过在细胞间传递蛋白质、microRNAs等信息,促进血管平滑肌细胞发生成骨样表型转化以及矿物质沉积;另一方面,外泌体还可以诱导血管内皮细胞发生内皮-间充质转化,进而调控血管钙化的进程.但是,外泌体在内皮细胞和平滑肌细胞参与血管钙化进程中的具体作用及机制目前尚不完全清楚.本文就外泌体在调节平滑肌细胞的成骨样表型转化、矿物质沉积、microRNA转运以及内皮细胞的内皮-间充质转化中的作用进行了综述,以期为血管钙化的防治提供新思路.     

Osteo-renal regulation of systemic phosphate metabolism

Impaired kidney function and subsequent skeletal responses play a critical role in disrupting phosphate balance in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients with mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD). In patients with CKD-MBD, the inability of the kidney to maintain normal mineral ion balance affects bone remodeling to induce skeletal fracture and extraskeletal vascular calcification. In physiological conditions, bone-derived fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) acts on the kidney to reduce serum phosphate and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D levels. In humans, increased bioactivity of FGF23 leads to increased urinary phosphate excretion, which induces hypophosphatemic diseases (e.g., rickets/osteomalacia). However, reduced FGF23 activity is associated with hyperphosphatemic diseases (e.g., tumoral calcinosis). In patients with CKD, high serum levels of FGF23 fail to reduce serum phosphate levels and lead to numerous complications, including vascular calcification, one of the important determinants of mortality of CKD-MBD patients. Of particular significance, molecular, biochemical and morphological changes in patients with CKD-MBD are mostly due to osteo-renal dysregulation of mineral ion metabolism. Furthermore, hyperphosphatemia can partly contribute to the development of secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients with CKD-MBD. Relatively new pharmacological agents including sevelamer hydrochloride, calcitriol analogs and cinacalcet hydrochloride are used either alone, or in combination, to minimize hyperphosphatemia and hyperparathyroidism associated complications to improve morbidity and mortality of CKD-MBD patients. This article will briefly summarize how osteo-renal miscommunication can induce phosphate toxicity, resulting in extensive tissue injuries.     

Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorders (CKD-MBDs): What the Endocrinologist Needs to Know

ObjectiveChronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorders (CKD-MBDs) are a spectrum of abnormalities involving skeletal hormones, minerals, and bone turnover and mineralization. This paper focuses on what the endocrinologist should know about the assessment and management of skeletal and metabolic disorders in CKD-MBDs.MethodsRelevant literature was reviewed to (1) define disturbances of minerals and hormones in the course of CKD; (2) identify the variable radiographic and histomorphometric changes of CKD-MBDs; (3) review the association among CKD-MBDs, vascular calcification, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and mortality; and (4) clarify issues in CKD-MBDs therapy.ResultsAssessment and treatment of CKD-MBDs is complicated by progressive changes in bone minerals and skeletal regulatory hormones as kidney function declines. CKD-MBDs are associated with fracture risk, and studies demonstrate that bone mineral density can be used to assess bone loss and fracture risk in these patients. Treatment of CKD-MBDs continues to evolve. Use of calcium, phosphate binders, vitamin D, vitamin D–receptor analogs, and drugs for osteoporosis and CKD-MBDs treatment are discussed in the context of safety and efficacy for patients with CKD.ConclusionThe association of CKD with bone disease, vascular calcification, CVD, and mortality mandates earlier recognition and treatment of CKD-MBDs. Osteoporosis as a distinct entity can be diagnosed and managed in CKD, although assessment of osteoporosis becomes challenging in late (stage 4 to 5) CKD. Diabetes is common in early (stage 1 to 3) CKD. In addition, 96% of all individuals identified as having CKD have early CKD. The endocrinologist is uniquely positioned to address and treat both diabetes and many of the metabolic and skeletal disorders associated with early CKD-MBDs, including osteoporosis. (Endocr Pract. 2014;20:500-516)     

A Decreased Level of Serum Soluble Klotho Is an Independent Biomarker Associated with Arterial Stiffness in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease

Background

Klotho was originally identified in a mutant mouse strain unable to express the gene that consequently showed shortened life spans. In humans, low serum Klotho levels are related to the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases in community-dwelling adults. However, it is unclear whether the serum Klotho levels are associated with signs of vascular dysfunction such as arterial stiffness, a major determinant of prognosis, in human subjects with chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Methods

We determined the levels of serum soluble Klotho in 114 patients with CKD using ELISA and investigated the relationship between the level of Klotho and markers of CKD-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD) and various types of vascular dysfunction, including flow-mediated dilatation, a marker of endothelial dysfunction, ankle-brachial pulse wave velocity (baPWV), a marker of arterial stiffness, intima-media thickness (IMT), a marker of atherosclerosis, and the aortic calcification index (ACI), a marker of vascular calcification.

Results

The serum Klotho level significantly correlated with the 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D level and inversely correlated with the parathyroid hormone level and the fractional excretion of phosphate. There were significant decreases in serum Klotho in patients with arterial stiffness defined as baPWV≥1400 cm/sec, atherosclerosis defined as maximum IMT≥1.1 mm and vascular calcification scores of ACI>0%. The serum Klotho level was a significant determinant of arterial stiffness, but not endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis or vascular calcification, in the multivariate analysis in either metabolic model, the CKD model or the CKD-MBD model. The adjusted odds ratio of serum Klotho for the baPWV was 0.60 (p = 0.0075).

Conclusions

Decreases in the serum soluble Klotho levels are independently associated with signs of vascular dysfunction such as arterial stiffness in patients with CKD. Further research exploring whether therapeutic approaches to maintain or elevate the Klotho level could improve arterial stiffness in CKD patients is warranted.     

Phospholipase D: A new mediator during high phosphate-induced vascular calcification associated with chronic kidney disease

Vascular calcification (VC) is the pathological accumulation of calcium phosphate crystals in one of the layers of blood vessels, leading to loss of elasticity and causing severe calcification in vessels. Medial calcification is mostly seen in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and diabetes. Identification of key enzymes and their actions during calcification will contribute to understand the onset of pathological calcification. Phospholipase D (PLD1, PLD2) is active at the earlier steps of mineralization in osteoblasts and chondrocytes. In this study, we aimed to determine their effects during high-phosphate treatment in mouse vascular smooth muscle cell line MOVAS, in the ex vivo model of the rat aorta, and in the in vivo model of adenine-induced CKD. We observed an early increase in PLD1 gene and protein expression along with the increase in the PLD activity in vascular muscle cell line, during calcification induced by ascorbic acid and β-glycerophosphate. Inhibition of PLD1 by the selective inhibitor VU0155069, or the pan-PLD inhibitor, halopemide, prevented calcification. The mechanism of PLD activation is likely to be protein kinase C (PKC)-independent since bisindolylmaleimide X hydrochloride, a pan-PKC inhibitor, did not affect the PLD activity. In agreement, we found an increase in Pld1 gene expression and PLD activity in aortic explant cultures treated with high phosphate, whereas PLD inhibition by halopemide decreased calcification. Finally, an increase in both Pld1 and Pld2 expression occurred simultaneously with the appearance of VC in a rat model of CKD. Thus, PLD, especially PLD1, promotes VC in the context of CKD and could be an important target for preventing onset or progression of VC.     

Inhibitors of tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase: Design,synthesis, kinetics,biomineralization and cellular tests

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is associated with numerous metabolic and endocrine disturbances, including abnormalities of calcium and phosphate metabolism and an inflammatory syndrome. The latter occurs early in the course of CKD and contributes to the development and progression of vascular calcification. A few therapeutic strategies are today contemplated to target vascular calcification in patients with CKD: vitamin K2, calcimimetics and phosphate binders. However, none has provided complete prevention of vascular calcification and there is an urgent need for alternate efficient treatments. Recent findings indicate that tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) may represent a very promising drug target due to its participation in mineralization by vascular smooth muscle cells. We report the synthesis of four levamisole derivatives having better inhibition property on TNAP than levamisole. Their IC₅₀, K_i and water solubility have been determined. We found that the four inhibitors bind to TNAP in an uncompetitive manner and are selective to TNAP. Indeed, they do not inhibit intestinal and placental alkaline phosphatases. Survival MTT tests on human MG-63 and Saos-2 osteoblast-like cells have been performed in the presence of inhibitors. All the inhibitors are not toxic at concentrations that block TNAP activity. Moreover, they are able to significantly reduce mineralization in MG63 and Saos-2 osteoblast-like cells, indicating that they are promising molecules to prevent vascular calcification.     

Axl Tyrosine Kinase Protects against Tubulo-Interstitial Apoptosis and Progression of Renal Failure in a Murine Model of Chronic Kidney Disease and Hyperphosphataemia

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined as the progressive loss of renal function often involving glomerular, tubulo-interstitial and vascular pathology. CKD is associated with vascular calcification; the extent of which predicts morbidity and mortality. However, the molecular regulation of these events and the progression of chronic kidney disease are not fully elucidated. To investigate the function of Axl receptor tyrosine kinase in CKD we performed a sub-total nephrectomy and fed high phosphate (1%) diet to Axl+/+ and Axl−/− mice. Plasma Gas6 (Axl'' ligand), renal Axl expression and downstream Akt signalling were all significantly up-regulated in Axl+/+ mice following renal mass reduction and high phosphate diet, compared to age-matched controls. Axl−/− mice had significantly enhanced uraemia, reduced bodyweight and significantly reduced survival following sub-total nephrectomy and high phosphate diet compared to Axl+/+ mice; only 45% of Axl−/− mice survived to 14 weeks post-surgery compared to 87% of Axl+/+ mice. Histological analysis of kidney remnants revealed no effect of loss of Axl on glomerular hypertrophy, calcification or renal sclerosis but identified significantly increased tubulo-interstitial apoptosis in Axl−/− mice. Vascular calcification was not induced in Axl+/+ or Axl−/− mice in the time frame we were able to examine. In conclusion, we identify the up-regulation of Gas6/Axl signalling as a protective mechanism which reduces tubulo-interstitial apoptosis and slows progression to end-stage renal failure in the murine nephrectomy and high phosphate diet model of CKD.     

Management of Secondary Hyperparathyroidism in Stages 3 and 4 Chronic Kidney Disease

ObjectiveTo review approved treatment options for secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) in patients with stages 3 and 4 chronic kidney disease (CKD).MethodsRecently published data on the diagnosis and treatment of SHPT in patients with CKD were critically assessed.ResultsEarly detection of SHPT is critical for effective treatment. Approximately 40% of patients with stage 3 CKD and 80% of patients with stage 4 have SHPT due to low serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D levels. Appropriate treatment involves suppression of parathyroid hormone (PTH) to normal levels with active vitamin D therapy and phosphate binders. Ergocalciferol or cholecalciferol should be used to correct 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels either before or during active vitamin D therapy. Active vitamin D analogues include calcitriol, doxercalciferol, and paricalcitol. Calcitriol is effective, but has a narrow therapeutic window at higher doses because of hypercalcemia and hyperphosphatemia, which require frequent monitoring. Doxercalciferol is also effective, but has been associated with significant elevations in serum phosphorus requiring greater use of oral phosphate binders. Paricalcitol effectively suppresses PTH with minimal impact on serum calcium and phosphorus. Limited data exist on the use of cinacalcet in treating SHPT in stages 3 and 4 CKD, and it is only approved for use in patients receiving dialysis.ConclusionSHPT is an early and major complication of CKD. Treatment involves suppression of PTH to prevent metabolic bone disease, bone loss, and metabolic complications that may result in marked morbidity and mortality. Early detection of elevated PTH levels with appropriate intervention using active vitamin D therapy, even in the absence of elevated serum phosphorus and reduced serum calcium, is critical. (Endocr Pract. 2008;14:18-27)     

Oxidative phosphorylation promotes vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease

Metabolism has been reported to associate with the progression of vascular diseases. However, how vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease (CKD) is regulated by metabolic status remains poorly understood. Using a model of 5/6 nephrectomy, we demonstrated that the aortic tissues of CKD mice had a preference for using oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Both high phosphate and human uremic serum-stimulated vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) had enhanced mitochondrial respiration capacity, while the glycolysis level was not significantly different. Besides, 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2-DG) exacerbated vascular calcification by upregulating OXPHOS. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase (COX) was higher in the aortic tissue of CKD mice than those of sham-operated mice. Moreover, the expression levels of COX15 were higher in CKD patients with aortic arch calcification (AAC) than those without AAC, and the AAC scores were correlated with the expression level of COX15. Suppressing COX sufficiently attenuated vascular calcification. Our findings verify the relationship between OXPHOS and calcification, and may provide potential therapeutic approaches for vascular calcification in CKD.Subject terms: Calcification, End-stage renal disease