Reproductive and dietary parameters in wild greater galago populations

Information concerning habitat, body size, reproductive status, and diet was recorded from 348 greater galagos, captured at six different localities in Tanzania and southern Africa between 1953 and 1955. The localities extended from Pemba Island in the north to Chikwawa, Malawi, in the south and varied broadly in the same order in degree of climatic aridity— from well-watered clove and coconut plantations to seasonally very dry woodland. Animals from the three northern localities fell within the geographic range of Galago garnettii,while the rest were assumed to be G. crassicaudatus.Statistical analysis of body size parameters confirmed this allocation. Data on fetal occurrence, vaginal and labial condition, and lactation indicate a restricted breeding season for both species, with peak proportions in estrus in August in G. garnettiiand in May-July in G. crassicaudatus.Gut content data indicate a variety of foods, with a preponderance in the northern localities of soft fruit such as mango, pawpaw, and coconut pulp; gum was a major carbohydrate source in the southernmost localities. Contrary to expectations, tooth damage, in the form of both loss and breakage, was much more prevalent in G. garnettiithan in G. crassicaudatus.The teeth most commonly lost were the upper incisors— perhaps because of the high acid and sugar content of a frugivorous diet. The high incidence of breakage of the lower incisors and upper canines indicates the inclusion of hard-shelled food sources in the diet of G. garnettii.     

Distribution of erythrocytic allozymes in two sibling species of greater galago [Galago crassicaudatus E. Geoffroy 1812 and G. garnettii (Ogilby 1838)]

This study investigated the use of erythrocyte enzymes as indicators of the presence or absence of gene flow between the sibling species G. crassicaudatus and G. garnettii. Fifty-five animals deriving from 14 different source populations were included in the analyses. In addition to hemoglobin, eight enzyme systems were examined: acid phosphatase, adenylate kinase, carbonic anhydrase II, esterase D, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, peptidase A, and peptidase B. of these, adenylate kinase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, hemoglobin, peptidase A, and peptidase B showed no interspecific or intraspecific variation. Esterase D was polymorphic in certain populations of G. crassicaudatus but not in others or in G. garnettii. Acid phosphatase and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase were polymorphic in G. garnettii but monomorphic in all G. crassicaudatus populations. The taxa showed fixation for different alleles at the carbonic anhydrase II locus, indicating a lack of gene exchange between the taxa. We suggest that acid phosphatase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, and carbonic anhydrase II may be used as genetic markers in the identification of these two taxa.     

Isolation of females prior to parturition reduces neonatal mortality in Galago

Eighteen years of birth records for three species of Galago at the Duke University Primate Center were examined to determine the effects of isolation of pregnant females on neonatal mortality rates. Isolation significantly decreased neonatal mortality rates in all three species over neonatal mortality rates in infants born to unisolated females. The frequency of cannibalism of infants did not differ between isolated and unisolated females. Secondary sex ratio differed significantly from 1:1 for all three species, but higher mortality in males in the first 10 days of life resulted in sex ratios that did not differ from 1:1 in G. garnettii and G. crassicaudatus.     

Species differences in substrate use and diet between sympatric galagos in two Kenyan coastal forests

Two sympatric species of galago,Galago zanzibaricus andG. garnettii, differed significantly in diet (judged mainly by fecal analysis) and substrate use at each of two coastal forest sites in Kenya. The larger-bodiedG. garnettii tended to use branches of a bigger diameter and to be found higher in the canopy than the smallerG. zanzibaricus. The latter species spent most of its time in the thick undergrowth. The larger species ate more fruit than the smaller. There were differences between the species in the type of invertebrate prey remains found in the feces. It is suggested that the differences in habitat use were influenced by the different body sizes of the two galagos, which so enabled these closely related species to coexist. Order of authorship is alphabetical.     

A comparison ofGalago moholi in South Africa withGalago zanzibaricus in Kenya

Two populations of small bushbabies that frequently have been regarded as subspecies of Galago senegalensisare compared and contrasted. The animals in South Africa differ from those in coastal forests of Kenya in aspects of their morphology, locomotion, calls, reproduction, diet, social organization, and karyotype. The two forms are clearly separate species, namely G. moholiand G. zanzibaricus.     

Social organization of Galagos in Kenyan coastal forests: II. Galago garnettii

The social organization of Galago garnettii was studied for the first time and the study included data from two different sites in the coastal forests of Kenya. A combination of mark-recapture and radio-tracking techniques was used to investigate patterns of inter- and intrasexual home range overlap. Patterns of range use were established by radio tracking focal individuals. Adult females of different ages shared highly overlapping ranges, while like-aged females showed little range overlap. Females matured and had their first infants in their natal ranges. Adult males' ranges were larger than those of females and overlapped them extensively. Resident adult males showed little range overlap with each other, unless they were of different ages. Turnover of males was frequent in both populations. Males probably dispersed from their natal ranges. Adults rarely slept together. The social organization of G. garnettii is relatively similar to that of the closely related G. crassicaudatus of southern Africa but contrasts with that of its sympatric congener, G. zanzibaricus. The differences and similarities between these three species are discussed in relation to diet and body size.     

Seasonal variation in the diet of South African Galagos

The feeding behavior and diet of two species of bushbaby, Galago senegalensisand Galago crassicaudatus,in South Africa were examined in relation to seasonal changes in climate. The populations studied were allopatric, but both fed predominantly on Acaciagum and invertebrates. Data on their diet were collected by direct observation of a radiocollared female of each species and by analysis of fecal samples. Differences in diet were found between the species within seasons and within species between the seasons. Both spent more time gum-feeding in winter than in summer. Prey size and type differed between the species in summer but converged in winter. The quantity of insects taken was fairly similar between seasons for G. senegalensisbut dropped considerably for G. crassicaudatusin winter. These observations are interpreted in terms of interspecific differences in feeding strategies, which are considered to be a function of the difference in body size of the two galago species.     

Lactation length in three species of Galago

Milk expression was used to determine lactation length in three species of Galago at the Duke University Primate Center. Lactation length in G. senegalensis moholi was significantly shorter than the lactation length of either G. garnettii or G. crassicaudatus, but lactation length did not differ between G. garnettii or G. crassicaudatus. Litter size had no significant effect on lactation length. The lactation lengths determined in this study are substantially longer than those reported by investigators who used observational techniques. These discrepancies may be partially explained by failure to observe nursing during the diurnal inactive period.     

Spectral characteristics of intense mew calls in cat species of the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Felis</Emphasis> (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae)

Spectral characteristics of intense mew calls of six cat (sub)species in the genus Felis were studied in captivity: European wildcat (Felis s. silvestris), African wildcat (F. s. lybica), Asiatic steppe cat (F. s. ornata), black-footed cat (F. nigripes), jungle cat (F. chaus), and sand cat (F. margarita). The body weight of the largest (jungle cat) of the six taxa is about six times that of the smallest (black-footed cat), and they live in different habitat types ranging from open desert virtually devoid of vegetation (sand cat) to various types of rather dense forest and shrubland (European wildcat). These habitats differ considerably in the conditions for sound propagation. In this study we analyzed whether and how spectral characteristics of the intense mew calls of these cat taxa are related to their body weight/size and predominant habitat type (open vs. dense). Neither the mean fundamental frequency nor the mean dominant frequency of the intense calls of these cat (sub)species showed an inverse correlation with their respective body weights (“frequency scaling rule”). Rather, the mean dominant frequency is significantly positively correlated with body weight, being lower in the calls of the smaller taxa living in open habitat compared to those of the larger taxa living in dense habitat types. The hypothesis supported best by our data is that spectral features of intense mew calls in the Felis taxa studied have evolved to reduce attenuation when propagating through their respective habitat types. B. Tonkin-Leyhausen is retired and has no institutional affiliation any longer.     

The yellow-cheeked gibbon (Hylobates gabriellae) in nam bai cat tien (southern vietnam) revisited

Data concerning the status, habitat, and vocalizations of yellow-cheeked crested gibbons (Hylobates gabriellae) were collected during a short field trip to the Nam Bai Cat Tien National Park (southern Vietnam). Nam Bai Cat Tien may be the southernmost locality where crested gibbons (i.e. theHylobates concolor group) still survive. Fewer songs were heard at Nam Bai Cat Tien National Park than at other crested gibbon sites visited by the author. At least two gibbon groups appear to have been greatly reduced in number since previous surveys in the park. There is some evidence that both the gibbon population and the gibbon habitat in Nam Bai Cat Tien are disturbed. The first case of a great call solo song in wild gibbons of theconcolor group is reported. Great calls ofH. gabriellae are described and documented with sonagrams for the first time. They differ from those previously described forH. leucogenys.     

Structure and use of distance calls in wild bonobos (Pan paniscus)

We report the physical structure and use of a distance call (high-hoot) by wild bonobos (Pan paniscus).Although spectrographic analyses reveal high structural variability, the total sample can be subdivided according to the composition of units—the presence or absence of an initial segment—and the range of the lowest harmonic. Analyses of samples from male—female pairs,vocalizing simultaneously and in close proximity, reveal that both animals utter calls in more or less precise temporal alternation but with different spectral ranges. Whether these differences are gender-specific or related to other factors, such as age or the social relations between particular individuals, is not clear. We suggest that (a) individuals of the same party may coordinate their vocal activity on both the temporal and the spectral level and (b) high hootings stimulate emission of equal vocalizations by members of other parties and may increase cohesion among community members. Comparison of a restricted number of spectrograms from known individuals indicates that bonobos may be able to adjust spectral parameters of one type of distance calls (high- hoot) according to corresponding calls of conspecifics.     

The use of hair morphology in the classification of galagos (Primates, subfamily galagoninae)

The outer epidermal hair structure of bushbabies or galagos varies considerably between genera and species. Comparative morphology can therefore be useful in taxonomic studies, particularly when assessing the true status of newly nominated or misclassified species. Quantitative measurements of outer epidermal hair scales (scale frequency and scale complexity) were made for populations representing 13 taxa within the subfamily Galagoninae. Intraspecific variations in both measures of hair morphology were relatively minor. By contrast, significant interspecific differences were observed, even between closely related, well-established species (e.g. in the greater galagosOtolemur crassicaudatus andO. garnettii and lesser galagosGalago senegalensis andGalago moholi). Assessment of scale frequency resulted in the recognition of all species of the greater and needle-clawed galago genera and added support for nomination to species status of two former subspecies (O. argentatus andE. pallidus). Similar divisions were made in the lesser and dwarf galagos with respect to scale complexity. Possible explanations for the differences in outer epidermal hair scales are discussed. Characteristics of outer epidermal hair scales provide a useful guide to species identity in the subfamily Galagoninae, and the same may prove to be true for other groups of nocturnal mammals.     

Bioacoustic analysis of frog calls from northeast India

Mating calls of three frog species abundant in northeast IndiaRana tigerina,Rana cyanophlyctis andRana limnocharis were recorded in the fields of Assam and Meghalaya during their breeding season (July-August, 1991). The calls were analysed for their temporal and spectral characters. They were species specific, with distinct call duration and call period, number of pulses per call and interpulse interval, and dominant frequency and frequency domain. A comparison of the mating calls ofRana cyanophlyctis with those of the siblingRana ehrenbergi from Yemen showed differences in their temporal and spectral characters, supporting the suggestion that these two species are distinct species, rather than subspecies of the same species. Differences in the temporal and spectral pattern were found in the mating calls of morphologically alike specimens ofRana limnocharis, indicating that the present morphotypeRana limnocharis in northeast India is composed of several species.     

Contrasting reproductive parameters ingalago senegalensis braccatus andG. s. moholi

Reproductive parameters were compared between two subspecies of the lesser bushbaby, Galago senegalensis braccatusand G. s. moholi.Adult body weights for both male and female G. s. braccatuswere significantly higher than adult body weights of G. s. moholi,as were infant birth weights. The mean gestation length of G. s. braccatuswas significantly longer than that of G. s. moholi. G. s. moholihad a higher incidence of twinning than G. s. braccatus.Puberty in females occurred significantly later in G. s. braccatusthan in G. s. moholi.These differences are of such magnitude that hybridization of G. s. braccatuswith G. s. moholiwould be unlikely. These differences, if augmented by additional evidence, may warrant distinction of the two subspecies at the species level.     

Vocal communication of wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata)

Field observations and spectrographic analyses of sound recordings of South Indian bonnet macaques revealed a vocal repertoire of at least 25 basic patterns. The repertoire consists of well separated sound classes and acoustic categories connected by structural intergradation. Besides structural variations within and between different elements of the repertoire, the vocal system ofMacaca radiata is characterized by regular combinations of particular basic patterns. These combinations occurred not only between calls of similar structure and function but also between calls usually emitted in entirely different social contexts. According to the qualitative analysis, sex-specific asymmetries of the vocal behaviour were less pronounced than age-dependent characteristics. The comparison of clear call vocalizations ofMacaca radiata andM. fuscata revealed significant species-specific differences on the structural and the behavioural level. Evaluations of the structural features of alarm calls of various macaque species imply marked differences between members of thefascicularis group andsinica group on one hand and thesilenus group andarctoides group on the other.     

A preliminary study of vocal communication in wild long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). II. Potential of calls to regulate intragroup spacing

This study is a preliminary assessment of the potential of long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) calls to operate in systems of within-group spacing. Covariation in the rate of occurrence of calls with party spread, size, and activity among wild individuals of one group suggested that four classes of calls may function in intragroup spacing. Two of them are “clear” calls of long duration and pronounced frequency modulation. Calling rate increased with party spread for low- and high-frequency variants of these calls during resting and feeding respectively, suggesting possible utility in maintenance of spatial relations over moderately long distances. A third “harsh” call was negatively correlated with party spread during foraging and may thus function to increase dispersion among foraging individuals. Another harsh call with a tonal onset was unique among all calls in the vocal repertoire in being more frequently performed by lone, isolated individuals than by macaques accompanied by others, suggesting a possible function in reestablishing contact that has been severed. The functional significance of these calls with respect to their acoustic structures is discussed. Macaques that use calls to regulate intragroup spacing can control communication distance and direction by their choice of acoustically different vocalizations. This choice may be affected not only by varying environmental constraints on sound transmission, but also by social and ecological factors such as intragroup competition.     

The evolution of vocalisations in the genus Corvus: effects of phylogeny, morphology and habitat

In this study we investigated the phylogenetic, morphological and ecological factors affecting the caw calls of 28 species of the genus Corvus, spanning the worldwide range of the taxon. The three phylogeographic groups identified by Goodwin (1986, Crows of the World, British Museum (Natural History), St Edmudsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds), i.e. the American stock, the Palearctic-African stock and the Oriental-Australian stock, were differentiated by some of the acoustic features of their calls, suggesting that historical factors may have played an important role in the evolution of vocalisations in this group. To assess the effects of morphology (body size and bill length) and environment (open vs. closed habitat) and to simultaneously take into account the phylogenetic effects, we used the phylogenetically independent contrast method. This manner of analysis revealed that body size was important in shaping the acoustic attributes of the caw call, as it influenced two temporal and two spectral variables, whereas the effect of bill length was far weaker. Notably, our results did not confirm the negative correlation between call frequency and body size that resulted in a phylogeny-free analysis of the same data in many studies on passerines. Larger Corvus species, in fact, utter calls with higher fundamental frequency than those of smaller species. Hence, these results show that incorporating phylogeny in analyses can substantially alter the conclusions reached by studies carried out with non-phylogenetic approaches. The acoustic environment, considered one of the most important forces driving the evolution of vocalisations in passerines, slightly influenced only two acoustic parameters in the Corvusgenus, call fundamental frequency and duration of pulsed units, both of which increased in the calls of forest species.     

Host habitat finding and host selection of theDrosophila parasitoidLeptopilina australis (Hymenoptera,Eucoilidae), with a comparison of the niches of EuropeanLeptopilina species

Summary Decaying petioles of giant hogweed,Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier, are used as a breeding site by six species ofDrosophila and the drosophilidScaptomyza pallida. The most numerous parasitoid species associated with this community isLeptopilina australis. BecauseL. australis was previously unknown in western Europe, we present the characters to distinguish it form its close relativeL. clavipes. Experiments on host species selection and survival ofL. australis showed that this parasitoid mainly usesD. limbata as host. Olfactometer experiments showed thatL. australis is attracted by the odour of decaying hogweed stalks, especially when these contain larvae ofD. limbata. L. australis is also strongly attracted by the odour of stinkhorns, a habitat in which it has never been found in nature.D. phalerata is the dominant fly species in stinkhorns, and is not a host ofL. australis. We offer a possible functional explanation for this unexpected habitat choice, by showing thatD. transversa andD. kuntzei, both species found to breed in fungi, are also suitable hosts forL. australis. We also discuss habitat choice with regard to a proposed phylogeny of theLeptopilina species in temperate Europe. Finally, we discuss niche overlap ofL. australis with the otherLeptopilina species.     

Metabolism during starvation/dehydration stress in two species of galagos

Two species of galagos (G. senegalensis moholi andG. garnettii) were subjected to dehydration and starvation stress in order to determine whether, as is common in other animals, these hypometabolic prosimians would lower their metabolic rate even further. Dehydration was confirmed by losses in body mass, a decrease in fecal water content and a rise in urine osmolality. At the height of dehydration, 20 to 25% reduction in body mass, 30 to 40% reduction in fecal water content and urine osmolality ranging from 1.8 to 3.5 Osmol kg⁻¹ H₂O, were recorded in some of the animals. Basal metabolic rate of 0.536 ml O₂ (g·h)⁻¹ inG. s. moholi and 0.302 ml O₂ (g·h)⁻¹ inG. garnettii were recorded, representing 50 to 42% reduction in metabolic rate, respectively, compared with mass specific values. In none of the tested animals did we observe significant reduction in basal metabolism during dehydration/starvation stress compared with the rates observed during the control period. Basal metabolism in the bushbabies seems to have reached the lowest level and no further adjustment is apparently possible as a strategy for energy saving during starvation and/or dehydration stress.     

Fusarium fractiflexum sp. nov. and two other species within theGibberella fujikuroi species complex recently discovered in Japan that form aerial conidia in false heads

Morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses were conducted on 12 strains ofFusarium, deposited in MAFF asF. subglutinans (≡F. moniliforme var.subglutinans≡F. sacchari var.subglutinans) orFusarium sp. because they formed aerial conidia in false heads in the dark. These strains were resolved as three distinct species within theGibberella fujikuroi species complex. A new species,F. fractiflexum, and two species new to Japan,F. circinatum andF. concentricum, are described and illustrated and their morphological features are discussed.Fusarium fractiflexum, isolated from diseased yellow leaf spots ofCymbidium spp., is differentiated from other fusaria based on its yellowish colonies and aerial conidia formed in false heads in the dark and in zigzag-like conidial chains under black light. Japanese strains ofF. circinatum also formed elongate, coiled sterile hyphae. Phialidic aerial conidia with a pointed apex and a wedgeshaped base were found inF. concentricum cultured under black light and represent a new diagnostic character of the species, in addition to colonies with alternating concentric rings when cultured on PDA. Based on DNA sequences of the β-tubulin gene and two other loci, strains ofF. fractiflexum were resolved phylogenetically as members of the Asian clade of theG. fujikuroi species complex. In addition, Japanese strains ofF. circinatum andF. concentricum were phylogenetically identical to the ex-type strains.