A Preliminary Study of the Title to Huangyan Island (Scarborough Reef/Shoal)

The current standoff over Huangyan Island (Scarborough Reef/Shoal) between China and the Philippines is one that above all concerns the sovereignty over the island. The Philippines made its position known in 1997 that it relies on effective occupation of the island as the basis for its claim. This article, a preliminary study, seeks to demonstrate that there are not two competing titles respecting Huangyan Island's ownership, but only one, i.e., China's. Even in terms of the doctrine of effective occupation, China has a superior claim to the title to the island.     

SPECIES-AREA RELATIONSHIP DURING PRIMARY SUCCESSION IN GRANITE OUTCROP PLANT COMMUNITIES

The species-area relationship and its underlying explanatory mechanisms were investigated in a primary successional sere on a southeastern (United States) granite outcrop. There, plant communities occupy soil-filled depressions separated from one another by areas of bare rock. They have been termed “island communities.” Soil depth and area increase as succession proceeds from Sedum smallii, to lichen-annual, to annual-perennial, and to herb-shrub-tree stages. Although plant species richness is significantly and positively correlated with island area in the system studied (all successional stages considered), the relationship between species richness and island maximum soil depth is stronger. However, island maximum soil depth and area are significantly and positively correlated. The exponential function describes the speciesarea relationship better than the transformed power function. Within successional stage, species richness shows no significant relationship with area or depth, except for late-successional island communities. Processes related to community successional development may explain the species-area relationship that exists when islands of all stages are considered. However, mechanisms related to equilibrium between extinction and immigration may be responsible for the speciesarea relationship for late-successional island communities.     

The urban heat island in a small city in coastal Portugal

This project arose from the need to study the phenomenon of the urban heat island, since only by recognising this phenomenon can we moderate it to improve the human and urban environments. Not only big cities develop urban heat islands. This study detected the presence and recorded the characteristics of an urban heat island in the small coastal city of Aveiro, Portugal. The study was developed through the scheduled measurements of air temperature and the analysis of the geographical, meteorological and urban conditions. The form and intensity of Aveiro’s heat island are a response to the interaction of three principal factors: the urban morphology (the hottest zones in the city are those with the tallest and the highest density of buildings, without green spaces and with intense generation of heat from traffic, commerce and services); the meteorological conditions (the intensity of the island is at its maximum when the sky is totally clear and there is no wind, and at its minimum in those situations when there is atmospheric instability, such as wind, cloud and precipitation); and the proximity of the coastal lagoon (which borders the city to the west and northwest and moderates seasonal temperatures. The urban heat island influences the comfort and health of its inhabitants, thus urban planning is very important in the moderation and prevention of this phenomenon. Received: 7 July 1999 / Revised: 24 April 2000 / Accepted: 26 April 2000     

The Yersinia high-pathogenicity island: an iron-uptake island.

Highly pathogenic Yersinia carry a pathogenicity island termed high-pathogenicity island (HPI). The Yersinia HPI comprises genes involved in the synthesis of the siderophore yersiniabactin and can thus be regarded as an iron-uptake island. A unique characteristic of the HPI is its wide distribution among different enterobacteria such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Citrobacter and Salmonella. Other types of iron-uptake systems are also carried by different pathogenicity islands in enterobacteria.     

Predicting the distribution potential of an invasive frog using remotely sensed data in Hawaii

Aim Eleutherodactylus coqui (commonly known as the coqui) is a frog species native to Puerto Rico and non‐native in Hawaii. Despite its ecological and economic impacts, its potential range in Hawaii is unknown, making control and management efforts difficult. Here, we predicted the distribution potential of the coqui on the island of Hawaii. Location Puerto Rico and Hawaii. Methods We predicted its potential distribution in Hawaii using five biophysical variables derived from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) as predictors, presence/absence data collected from Puerto Rico and Hawaii and three classification methods – Classification Trees (CT), Random Forests (RF) and Support Vector Machines (SVM). Results Models developed separately using data from the native range and the invaded range predicted potential coqui habitats in Hawaii with high performance. Across the three classification methods, mean area under the ROC curve (AUC) was 0.75 for models trained using the native range data and 0.88 for models trained using the invaded range data. We achieved the highest AUC value of 0.90 using RF for models trained with invaded range data. Main conclusions Our results showed that the potential distribution of coquis on the island of Hawaii is much larger than its current distribution, with RF predicting up to 49% of the island as suitable coqui habitat. Predictions also show that most areas with an elevation between 0 and 2000 m are suitable coqui habitats, whereas the cool and dry high elevation areas beyond 2000 m elevation are unsuitable. Results show that MODIS‐derived biophysical variables are capable of characterizing coqui habitats in Hawaii.     

Role of pathogenicity island-associated integrases in the genome plasticity of uropathogenic Escherichia coli strain 536

The genome of uropathogenic Escherichia coli isolate 536 contains five well-characterized pathogenicity islands (PAIs) encoding key virulence factors of this strain. Except PAI IV(536), the four other PAIs of strain 536 are flanked by direct repeats (DRs), carry intact integrase genes and are able to excise site-specifically from the chromosome. Genome screening of strain 536 identified a sixth putative asnW-associated PAI. Despite the presence of DRs and an intact integrase gene, excision of this island was not detected. To investigate the role of PAI-encoded integrases for the recombination process the int genes of each unstable island of strain 536 were inactivated. For PAI I(536) and PAI II(536), their respective P4-like integrase was required for their excision. PAI III(536) carries two integrase genes, intA, encoding an SfX-like integrase, and intB, coding for an integrase with weak similarity to P4-like integrases. Only intB was required for site-specific excision of this island. For PAI V(536), excision could not be abolished after deleting its P4-like integrase gene but additional deletion of the PAI II(536)-specific integrase gene was required. Therefore, although all mediated by P4-like integrases, the activity of the PAI excision machinery is most often restricted to its cognate island. This work also demonstrates for the first time the existence of a cross-talk between integrases of different PAIs and shows that this cross-talk is unidirectional.     

人工陆桥岛屿系统土壤呼吸速率及其影响因子

研究片段化森林中土壤呼吸速率的格局对进一步揭示陆地生态系统碳循环具有重要意义。本研究以千岛湖人工陆桥岛屿系统不同生境(岛屿与大陆,岛屿边缘与岛屿内部)为对象,分析了土壤呼吸速率的季节动态变化规律及其与土壤理化因子的关系。结果表明: 1)土壤呼吸速率在不同季节差异显著。夏季(3.74 μmol·m^-2·s^-1)>秋季(2.30 μmol·m^-2·s^-1)>春季(1.82 μmol·m^-2·s^-1)>冬季(1.40 μmol·m^-2·s^-1)。2)森林片段化对土壤呼吸速率产生显著影响,岛屿土壤呼吸速率(2.37 μmol·m^-2·s^-1)显著高于大陆(2.08 μmol·m^-2·s^-1);岛屿边缘土壤呼吸速率(2.46 μmol·m^-2·s^-1)显著高于岛屿内部(2.03 μmol·m^-2·s^-1)。3)土壤温度显著促进了土壤呼吸速率,并作为主要因子解释了56.1%的变化。4)土壤呼吸速率与土壤全碳、铵态氮含量和地表植被覆盖率呈显著正相关。土壤全碳和铵态氮含量在岛屿边缘显著高于岛屿内部。综上,森林片段化促进了土壤呼吸速率,而土壤理化因子的变化是其主要原因。     

A variable genetic island specific for Neisseria gonorrhoeae is involved in providing DNA for natural transformation and is found more often in disseminated infection isolates

Neisseria gonorrhoeae (the gonococcus) is the causative agent of the sexually transmitted disease gonorrhoea. Most gonococcal infections remain localized to the genital tract but, in a small proportion of untreated cases, the bacterium becomes systemic to produce the serious complication of disseminated gonococcal infection (DGI). We have identified a large region of chromosomal DNA in N. gonorrhoeae that is not found in a subset of gonococcal isolates (a genetic island), in the closely related pathogen, Neisseria meningitidis or in commensal Neisseria that do not usually cause disease. Certain versions of the island carry a serum resistance locus and a gene for the production of a cytotoxin; these versions of the island are found preferentially in DGI isolates. All versions of the genetic island encode homologues of F factor conjugation proteins, suggesting that, like some other pathogenicity islands, this region encodes a conjugation-like secretion system. Consistent with this hypothesis, a wild-type strain released large amounts of DNA into the medium during exponential growth without cell lysis, whereas an isogenic strain mutated in a peptidoglycan hydrolase gene (atlA) was drastically reduced in its ability to donate DNA for transformation during growth. This genetic island constitutes the first major discriminating factor between the gonococcus and the other Neisseria and carries genes for providing DNA for genetic transformation.     

Population genetic structure of and inbreeding in an insular cattle breed, the Jersey, and its implications for genetic resource management

The Jersey is a ubiquitous and successful breed of cattle that originates from the UK Channel Island of Jersey. While the breed has been exported extensively, no imports have taken place to the island since 1789, leading to a concern regarding possible losses of genetic diversity and increased inbreeding. We have conducted the first large-scale genetic analysis of the Jersey cattle using only samples from the island. A total of 223 cattle from all parishes except one were genotyped for 12 microsatellite loci. The average number of alleles per locus and expected heterozygosity were found to be comparatively high (n(A)=4, H(e)=0.64) with respect to that observed in a number of continental breeds. Only breeds that have been upgraded and are therefore the result of admixture are clearly more variable than the Jersey. We also found a significant but limited amount of genetic differentiation between parishes (F(st)=0.013), or even between farms (F(st)=0.035) despite an apparent lack of movement. This is confirmed by the application of two recent statistical methods. A Bayesian partition analysis shows that the most probable value of K, the number of possible hidden partitions, is 1 (P approximately 0.98). K=2 has a much lower probability (P approximately 0.02) while other values are essentially zero. Similarly, we were able to show that there was no support for departure from panmixia other than due to population structure, and thus that there is sufficient background gene flow across the island to overcome local drift. Overall, it appears that the current level of genetic diversity and its distribution within the island means it is unnecessary to import unrelated genetic material to the island for management purposes.     

Analysis of factors that influence energy expenditure in honeyeaters (Meliphagidae)

The energy expenditure of the tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae), a meliphagid endemic to New Zealand, was measured and compared with 20 species of honeyeaters (family Meliphagidae) to determine whether its expenditure is influenced either by life in a moist, temperate climate or an island residence. Body mass in the honeyeaters accounted for 91.5% of the variation in basal rate. The combination of body mass, climate and the maximal limit to an altitudinal distribution explained 98.6% of the variation in basal rate with tropical, low-altitude species having the highest mass-independent rate. The basal rates of meliphagids in tropical highlands are similar to those in temperate lowlands, which may reflect similar food supplies. The tūī mass-independent expenditure appears to reflect an active lifestyle in a temperate climate with no evidence that an island residence influenced its rate, whereas sedentary birds on New Zealand have responded to island life with a depressed basal rate. An effective analysis of the variation in energy expenditure requires the inclusion of the ecological and behavioural characteristics that distinguish species.     

Nestedness in island faunas: novel insights into island biogeography through butterfly community profiles of colonization ability and migration capacity

Aim To relate variation in the migration capacity and colonization ability of island communities to island geography and species island occupancy. Location Islands off mainland Britain and Ireland. Methods Mean migration (transfer) capacity and colonization (establishment) ability (ecological indices), indexed from 12 ecological variables for 56 butterfly species living on 103 islands, were related to species nestedness, island and mainland source geography and indices using linear regression models, RLQ analysis and fourth‐corner analysis. Random creation of faunas from source species, rank correlation and rank regression were used to examine differences between island and source ecological indices, and relationships to island geography. Results Island butterfly faunas are highly nested. The two ecological indices related closely to island occupancy, nestedness rank of species, island richness and geography. The key variables related to migration capacity were island area and isolation; for colonization ability they were area, isolation and longitude. Compared with colonization ability, migration capacity was found to correlate more strongly with island species occupancy and species richness. For island faunas, the means for both ecological indices decreased, and variation increased, with increasing island species richness. Mean colonization ability and migration capacity values were significantly higher for island faunas than for mainland source faunas, but these differences decreased with island latitude. Main conclusions The nested pattern of butterfly species on islands off mainland Britain and Ireland relates strongly to colonization ability but especially to migration capacity. Differences in colonization ability among species are most obvious for large, topographically varied islands. Generalists with abundant multiple resources and greater migration capacity are found on all islands, whereas specialists are restricted to large islands with varied and long‐lived biotopes, and islands close to shore. The inference is that source–sink dynamics dominate butterfly distributions on British and Irish islands; species are capable of dispersing to new areas, but, with the exception of large and northern islands, facilities (resources) for permanent colonization are limited. The pattern of colonization ability and migration capacity is likely to be repeated for mainland areas, where such indices should provide useful independent measures for assessing the conservation status of faunas within spatial units.     

Genetic structure of island and mainland populations of a Neotropical bumble bee species

As a consequence of founder effects, small population size and demographic constraints, island populations are often characterized by low genetic diversity and high inbreeding. The effects of inbreeding are more pronounced in haplo-diploid insects like bees than in similar diploid species, because their method of sex determination requires heterozygosity at a sex locus. Inbreeding leads to homozygosity at the sex locus and the production of non-viable diploid males. This means that island populations of bees are particularly prone to extinction. Here we determine the levels of diversity and isolation between islands and mainland populations of the bumble bee Bombus morio in southeast Brazil. We analyzed 659 individuals from 24 populations, sequencing two mitochondrial genes (COI and Cytb) and genotyping all individuals at 14 microsatellite loci. Surprisingly, genetic diversity was high and genetic isolation was low in all populations except Teodoro Sampaio (mainland) and Ilha da Vitória (island). Genetic diversity is not significantly correlated with island area, but is lower in populations that are more distant from the mainland. Except perhaps for Ilha da Vitória, we suggest that the island populations are unlikely to go extinct due to genetic factors. Finally, based on its genetic distance from all other populations, we identify a putative new subspecies in the Teodoro Sampaio region.     

Colonization and speciation on volcanic islands: phylogeography of the flightless grasshopper genus Arminda (Orthoptera,Acrididae) on the Canary Islands

Abstract Volcanic archipelagos represent excellent areas to study colonization and speciation processes. The grasshopper genus Arminda is one of many endemic taxa of the Canary Islands. It consists of seven wingless species, most of which are single‐island endemics. We sequenced two mitochondrial (12s rRNA, ND5) and two nuclear gene fragments (28s rRNA, ITS2) to reconstruct the colonization pattern of the genus. Our results are in accordance with a stepping‐stone colonization model from east to west, corresponding to the prevailing ocean currents, but alternative hypotheses cannot be fully rejected. The populations of A. brunneri from Tenerife belong to two different lineages (east and west) consistent with the geological history of the island. It remains to be tested whether these lineages represent different species and whether further lineages exist on this island. The five clades of the four western islands (A. brunneri group) have approximately similar branch lengths. The short internodes between these lineages resulted in a poorer phylogenetic resolution. Specimens from La Palma were genetically distinct and are subsequently described as a new species, Arminda palmae sp.n. Our results suggest in situ speciation on Gran Canaria, which was accompanied by a stronger degree of morphological diversification than the inter‐island speciation processes. The aberrant species A. canariensis has formerly been assigned to a monotypic subgenus Chopardminda, which is now synonymized with Arminda syn.n. based on its phylogenetic position. Gran Canaria seems to be the only island where Arminda species occur sympatrically, although allopatric speciation seems likely due to the long history of volcanism and erosion on the island.     

海岛生态物联网建设:概念和模型

海岛是自然资源的重要组成部分,但由于受海洋影响强烈、海岛空间有限而生态脆弱性明显,应加强保护。保护的前提则需要掌握海岛生态本底现状及未来发展、变化趋势等信息,海岛生态物联网监测则能够为实现这一需求提供重要支撑。本文在前人相关研究的基础上,概述了海岛生态物联网的概念,即基于物联网技术对海岛生态系统开展自动、实时、长期监测并获取海岛生物、非生物、生态安全等信息以掌握海岛生态系统在自然和人为活动干扰下的变化规律与机制,评估海岛生态状况以作出相应决策和开展海岛生态学研究的基础网络体系;结合海岛特点构建了海岛生态物联网概念模型,形成了由生态要素监测层、数据采集层、存储层、网络传输层、能源保障层、保密层、应用层等7部分构成的监测体系;海岛生态物联网在前期构建、监测内容、数据管理、建设及维护、数据应用等方面具有区别于其他物联网的特征。以广东典型小海岛——三角岛为例展示了海岛生态物联网概念模型在具体海岛上的构建应用,为下一步开展三角岛生态物联网的实践应用及管理提供基础参考,为海岛生态监测和生态物联网建设提供理论和实践参考,并有助于未来海岛生态物联网建设的研究。     

Species pool structure determines the level of generalism of island parasitoid faunas

Aim To examine whether island parasitoid faunas are biased towards generalists when compared with the mainland and their species pool, and to evaluate the effects of climate, island characteristics and regional factors on the relative proportions of idiobionts (i.e. generalists) and koinobionts (i.e. specialists) of two parasitic wasp families, Braconidae and Ichneumonidae. Location Seventy‐three archipelagos distributed world‐wide. Methods We used data on the distribution and biology obtained from a digital catalogue and several literature sources. We related level of generalism, measured as the ratio between the number of idiobiont and koinobiont species, to climatic, physiographic and regional factors using generalized linear models. We compared models by means of Akaike weighting, and evaluated the spatial structure of their residuals. We used partial regressions to determine whether the final models account for all latitudinal structure in the level of generalism. Results Islands host comparatively more idiobionts than continental areas. Although there is a latitudinal gradient in the level of generalism of island faunas correlating with both environmental factors and island characteristics, the most important determinant of island community structure is their source pool. This effect is stronger for ichneumonids, where generalism is higher in the Indomalayan region, arguably due to the higher diversity of endophytic hosts in its large rain forests. Main conclusions The level of generalism of island parasitoid faunas is largely constrained by regional factors, namely by the structure of the species pool, which emphasizes the importance of including regional processes in our understanding of the functioning of ecological communities. The fact that generalist species are more predominant in islands with a large cover of rain forests pinpoints the importance of the indirect effects of ecological requirements on community structure, highlighting the complex nature of geographical gradients of diversity.     

The first 45 amino acids of SopA are necessary for InvB binding and SPI-1 secretion

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium encodes two type III secretion systems (TTSSs) within pathogenicity island 1 (SPI-1) and island 2 (SPI-2). These type III protein secretion and translocation systems transport a panel of bacterial effector proteins across both the bacterial and the host cell membranes to promote bacterial entry and subsequent survival inside host cells. Effector proteins contain secretion and translocation signals that are often located at their N termini. We have developed a ruffling-based translocation reporter system that uses the secretion- and translocation-deficient catalytic domain of SopE, SopE78-240, as a reporter. Using this assay, we determined that the N-terminal 45 amino acid residues of Salmonella SopA are necessary and sufficient for directing its secretion and translocation through the SPI-1 TTSS. SopA1-45, but not SopA1-44, is also able to bind to its chaperone, InvB, indicating that SPI-1 type III secretion and translocation of SopA require its chaperone.     

Thumb reconstruction with a sensory flap from the dorsum of the index finger.

The dorsal skin of the index ray is very useful (1) for a one-staged thumb lengthening procedure after amputation, (2) for covering the stump of an avulsed thumb with sensory skin, and (3) for expanding the first web space. The flap may be transferred as a rotation flap, or the dorsal vasculature and nerve supply to the index may be carefully dissected free as a pedicle to permit its use as a neurovascular island flap. We believe that considerably more sensory skin can be transferred by this flap than by the ring finger neurovascular island flap, and that the technical risks and surgical time are less with the index finger flap.